SCHOOL 

IN 

SIBERIA 


WILLIAM  E.RUSSELL.PH.D. 


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FAVORS  EXCHANGE  OF  STUDENTS  WITH  AMERICA 
THIS  YEAR 

Professor  Sapozhnikov,  minister  of  instruction,  approves  the  suggestion 
of  an  exchange  of  students,  teachers  and  professors  with  America.    In  a  public 


in  Tomsk,"  says  Minister  Sapozhnikov,  "he  raised  the  question  of  how 
desirable  it  would  be  that  the  two  countries,  Russia  and  the  United  States, 
should  exchange  professors,  teachers  and  students.  In  speaking  of  a  better 
system  of  elementary  schools  open  to  all,  Professor  Russell  did  not  close  his 
eyes  to  the  defects.  He  also  spoke  of  the  higher  development  of  painting, 
music,  literature  and  other  arts  in  Russia  than  in  his  own  country.  In  a 
word  each  country  had  something  to  gain  by  an  exchange. 

"It  is  true  that  in  the  schools,  as  well  as  in  the  life  of  these  countries  there 
are  fundamental  differences.  Both,  the  Russian  elementary  and  high  schools, 
but  especially  the  latter,  suffer  from  too  much  theory.  They  teach  many 
things  not  immediately  applicable  to  life.  Too  little  place  is  given  to  manual 
work,  to  handicraft,  to  natural  science.  The  number  of  special  technical 
schools  is  small,  and  the  need  for  good  mechanical  engineers  very  great. 
Russian  high  school  graduates,  after  eight  9r  ten  years  of  study,  have  not 
practical  knowledge  enough.  At  the  same  time  they  know  much  more  than 
American  high  school  graduates  do,  as  they  are  prepared  for  the  university. 
The  educational  program  here  is  of  a  higher  standard  than  in  American 
universities. 

"In  contrast  to  Russia,  the  defect  of  the  American  school  is  that  too  great 
attention  is  paid  to  the  practical  and  not  enough  to  theoretical  knowledge. 
America  has  yet  to  work  out  a  system  as  will  be  worth  borrowing  and  adopting 
in  the  Russian  schools.  It  may  be  possible  that  by^the  Russification  of  the 
American  schools  and  the  Americanization  of  Russian  schools,  a  new  typ^e 
of  school  can  be  found  that  will  be  most  suitable.  But  the  grafting  on  of. 
foreign  methods  to  the  Russian  school  or  a  simple  transplanting  can  not 
succeed.  A  thorough  study  of  the  methods  in  America  and  the  necessary 
changes  in  them,  in  accord  with  the  peculiarities  of  Russian  life  and  cus- 
toms, is  the  only  way. 

"It  is  necessary  for  this  purpose  that  in  the  nearest  future  some  of  our 
teachers  be  sent  to  the  United  States  for  a  term  of  at  least  two  years. 
The  Americans  at  the  same  time  can  send  their  students  to  Russia.  Such 
an  exchange  can  also  be  effected  between  the  Universities  and  the  Tech  - 
nical  schools. 

"The  exchange  of  professors  and  students  can  bring  important  conse- 
quences, not  only  for  the  school  system,  but  for  the  industrial  life  of  the 
country.  The  Americans  have  great  experience  in  the  development  of  their 
nation's  natural  riches.  Russia,  troubled  and  exhausted  by  war  and  politi- 
cal conditions,  is  incapable  of  getting  along  in  her  industrial  life  without  a 
helping  friendly  hand.  A  rich  country  like  the  United  States,  can  play  an  im- 
portant r61e  in  this  respect.  But  it  must  be  understood  that  after  Russia 
has  regained  her  strength  and  become  richer  in  skilled  workers  and  good 
technical  schools,  her  industry  must  be  concentrated  mainly  in  the  hands 
of  Russians. 

"  I  can  add  in  conclusion  that,  according  to  Professor  Russell,  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  Sates  is  interested  in  such  an  exchange  of  school  workers 
to  the  point  of  even  being  willing  to  assign  a  certain  sum  of  money  to  estab- 
lish scholarships  for  Russians,  sent  to  study  in  America.  From  my  point  of 
view  the  exchange  should  begin  this  coming  summer  of  1919.'* 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

ONE  WAY  TO  STAND  BY  RUSSIA 


BY 

WILLIAM  F.  RUSSELL,  PH.D. 

DEAN  OF  THE  COLLEGE  OF  EDUCATION,  STATE  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA 

RECENTLY  DIRECTOR  EDUCATIONAL  SECTION  RUSSIAN  DIVISION, 
COMMITTEE  ON  PUBLIC  INFORMATION 


PHOTOGRAPHS  BY  THE  AUTHOR 


PHILADELPHIA  AND  LONDON 
J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,   1919,  BY  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


PRINTED   BY  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 

AT  THE  WASHINGTON  SQUARE  PRESS 

PHILADELPHIA    U.  8.  A. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER.  PAGE 

I.  INTRODUCTION 9 

II.  GENERAL  CONDITIONS 12 

III.  CONTROL  AND  SUPPORT  OF  EDUCATION  IN  SIBERIA..  19 

IV.  THE  PRIMARY  SCHOOL 48 

V.  THE  HIGHER  PRIMARY  SCHOOL 57 

VI.  THE  COMBINATION  PRIMARY  AND  HIGHER  PRIMARY 

SCHOOL 61 

VII.  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 73 

VIII.  THE  NORMAL  SCHOOL ; . . .  98 

IX.  TEACHERS'  AND  PUPILS'  UNIONS 102 

X.  EXPERIENCES  WITH  SIBERIAN  TEACHERS 112 

XI.  NEEDS  OF  EDUCATION  IN  SIBERIA 127 


1  l  *~ 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Clipping  from  Vladivostok  Golos  Primorya,  January  19,  1919 

Fontispiece 
Schools  Burned  by  Bolsheviki,  Irkutsk,  and  University  of 

Irkutsk 16 

Pupils  in  Village  School,  Abacus,  Village  Street,  and  Village 

School  near  Irkutsk 48 

The  Primary  School 50 

Secondary  Schools 74 

Exhibit  and  Laboratory  Equipment  in  Polytechnic  School, 

Tomsk,  Exhibit  of  Beginning  Work,  and  Russian  School 

Desk  and  Seat 78 

Writing,  Arithmetic,  and  Drawing  Books  and  a  Siberian 

School  Journal 88 

Normal  School  and  Pupils  at  Nicholsk 98 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

I.  INTRODUCTION 

THIS  account  of  educational  conditions  in  Siberia 
was  gained  during  months  spent  there  in  the  service 
of  the  Committee  on  Public  Information.  As  Direc- 
tor of  the  Educational  Section  of  the  Russian 
Division  the  writer  had  opportunity  to  visit  many 
schools  and  confer  with  teachers,  school  administra- 
tors and  government  officials.  In  no  sense,  however, 
may  this  account  be  considered  as  final  or  even  typi- 
cal of  conditions  throughout  the  length  and  breadth 
of  Siberia.  Too  many  obstacles  stood  in  the  path. 

Among  the  difficulties  were  the  following : 

1.  Lack   of  knowledge  of  the  language:  The 
writer  was  compelled  to  use  interpreters  and  trans- 
lators in  conference  with  Russians  and  in  reading 
Russian  publications.    This  does  not  lessen  the  accu- 
racy of  the  material  used,  but  only  limits  its  scope. 
Interpreters  and  translators  were  carefully  checked 
in  their  work. 

2.  Lack  of  printed,  material  on  Russian  Schools: 
It  was  almost  impossible  to  find  documents  or  books 


10 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 


•oh-educasiona)  conditicps  in  Siberia,  Statistics  that 
could  be  trusted  were  out  of  date.  There  was  a 
great  shortage  of  paper  and  printing  supplies.  The 
whole  country  had  lately  been  disorganized  by  the 
Bolsheviki.  One  was  compelled,  necessarily,  to 
gather  data  for  himself. 

3.  Impossibility  of  visiting  many  localities: 
Travel  was  indescribably  difficult.  Trains  were 
crowded,  service  irregular.  If  one  wished  to  go 
to  another  city  he  was  compelled  to  be  at  the  rail- 
way station  hours  before  the  departure  of  a  train. 
He  then  had  to  fight  for  his  place.  Once  in  a  seat 
he  could  not  leave  it  without  a  guard  to  prevent 
others  from  taking  both  place  and  baggage.  Once  in 
a  city  it  was  almost  impossible  to  find  hotel  accom- 
modations. This  is  the  reason  why  the  writer  would 
travel  two  thousand  miles  without  making  a  stop. 
Schools  were  visited  in  Vladivostok,  Nicholsk,  Man- 
churia Station,  Irkutsk,  Taiga,  Tomsk  and  in  two 
villages ;  the  relative  relationship  of  these  cities  being 
approximately  the  same  as  New  York  City,  Albany, 
Chicago,  Denver,  Seattle  and  Vancouver,  B.  C. 

This  study,  therefore,  is  based  upon  the  results 
of  personal  observation  and  conferences.  As  far  as 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  1 1 

it  goes  it  is  accurate  and  carefully  done.  It  prob- 
ably is  typical  of  all  Siberia.  There  is  a  possibility 
that  it  is  not.  It  is  an  impression  of  an  era  in  Russian 
educational  history  that  is  very  important,  for  in  the 
months  of  September,  October,  November  and 
December,  1918,  the  teachers  of  Siberia  first  had 
opportunity  to  use  their  new-found  freedom  in  the 
administration  of  schools. 

The  reader  must  remember,  however,  the  limita- 
tions of  this  study. 


II.  GENERAL  CONDITIONS 

THE  story  of  the  development  and  descriptions 
of  the  pre-revolutionary  character  of  schools  in  Rus- 
sia are  available  in  many  forms.  Only  the  essential 
features  need  be  reviewed  here. 

The  Central  Government  at  Petrograd  was  in 
nominal  control  of  all  education,  the  Ministry  of 
Education  being  in  executive  charge.1  There  was 
one  system  of  education  for  the  masses;  quite  a  dif- 
ferent system  for  the  classes.  Poor  people  went  to 
the  Primary  School.  In  European  Russia  these 
schools  were  controlled  by  the  Zemstvos  or  by  the 
church,  the  latter  schools  in  general  being  very  poor 
schools.  In  the  villages  fortunate  enough  to  have 
schools,  there  was  commonly  only  one  teacher  and 
three  years  of  work  offered.  Children  entered  at  the 
age  of  eight  or  nine,  many  being  forced  to  leave 
school  before  their  meagre  training  in  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic  and  religion  had  been  completed. 
If  they  were  then  peculiarly  fortunate  in  living  near 
to  one  of  the  rare  Higher  Primary  Schools,  four 

1  There  were  scattered  exceptions  to  this,  military,  naval, 
commercial  and  agricultural  schools  being  in  the  control  of 
appropriate  ministries. 

12 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  13 

years  of  additional  work  could  then  be  taken.  As 
there  were  no  Zemstvos  in  Siberia,  most  of  the  vil- 
lage Primary  Schools  were  church  schools. 

The  wealthy  people,  on  the  other  hand,  sent  their 
children  to  the  secondary  school,  the  gymnasium, 
real  school,  commercial  school,  agricultural  school, 
or  polytechnic  school,  according  to  the  facilities  of 
the  locality  in  question.  Tuition  was  always  charged. 
These  schools  usually  had  local  endowment  and  gov- 
ernmental subsidy,  being  required  to  follow  a 
national  program  of  studies  and  subject  to  inspec- 
tion from  above.  An  eight-year  course  was  super- 
imposed upon  a  two-year  preparatory  course, 
graduation  giving  admission  to  appropriate  facul- 
ties of  the  universities,  technological  institutes  and 
military  schools. 

Theoretically  it  was  possible  for  a  child  to  enter 
the  gymnasium  upon  graduation  from  the  Primary 
or  Higher  Primary  School,  but  in  practice  it  was 
almost  never  found. 

Count  Ignatiev,  appointed  Minister  of  Education 
early  in  the  war,  had  more  advanced  hopes  for  the 
reorganization  of  education,  the  necessity  for  which 
had  been  brought  to  light  by  the  conflict.  His  pro- 
gram included  the  articulation  of  the  primary  and 


i4  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

secondary  school,  making  it  more  easy  for  the  bril- 
liant pupil  to  pass  from  one  to  the  other;  and  the 
introduction  of  vocational  schools  of  Primary  and 
Higher  Primary  grade,  that  the  nation  might  supply 
its  lack  of  citizens  skilled  in  agriculture  and  indus- 
try. He  was  not  able  to  put  his  ideas  into  practice. 

Education  in  Siberia  before  the  Revolution  may 
be  summarized  as  follows : 

There  was  one  system  of  education  for  the  rich, 
quite  another  for  the  poor.  School  administration 
was  highly  centralized,  authority  as  we'll  as  support 
coming  from  the  central  government.  Primary 
schools  were  in  the  control  of  city  governments  and 
the  church,  There  were  many  inspectors  whose  duty 
it  was  not  so  much  to  improve  school  conditions  as  to 
detect  and  stamp  out  any  anti-governmental  propa- 
ganda. In  its  reactionary  activities  the  government 
was  ably  assisted  by  the  Russian  church. 

After  the  Revolution  one  of  the  first  acts  of  the 
Kerenski  government  was  to  call  a  conference  of  edu- 
cators from  all  Russia.  This  conference  outlined 
a  new  program  of  education.  While  the  government 
was  to  maintain  its  support,  each  school  was  to  be 
autonomous  so  far  as  possible.  It  was  to  be  in 
charge  of  its  own  committee,  a  Pedagogical  Council, 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  15 

composed  of  all  the  teachers  of  the  school,  together 
with  representatives  of  the  parents,  pupils  and  local 
governmental  institutions.  Religion  was  ousted 
from  the  program  of  studies,  only  later  to  be  rees- 
tablished. Teachers  were  given  the  never-before 
enjoyed  right  of  meeting  and  association.  A 
National  Teachers'  Association  was  formed  with 
branches  in  each  of  the  governmental  subdivisions. 
Great  expectations  for  the  coming  year,  with  free- 
dom and  a  longed-for  opportunity  to  do  good  and 
put  individual  ideas  into  practice,  were  a  part  of 
the  hopes  of  every  school  teacher.  But  these  hopes 
were  postponed. 

The  Revolution  of  October,  when  the  Bolsheviki 
took  control,  interrupted  all  plans  at  the  beginning 
of  the  school  year.  The  Soviets,  organizations  of 
soldiers,  peasants,  workingmen  and  some  profes- 
sions, desiring  to  effect  a  social  as  well  as  a  political 
revolution,  assumed  control  of  all  governmental 
affairs,  taking  the  administration  of  schools  away 
from  the  cities  and  the  Zemstvos  (lately  formed  in 
Siberia).  Of  course  there  were  wide  variations, 
and  the  exact  relations  of  the  Bolsheviki  to  the 
schools  cannot  be  determined  until  a  time  when  more 
data  can  be  obtained. 


16  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

An  illustration  of  the  happenings  is  given  in  the 
following  quotation  from  a  report  of  the  school 
supervisors  to  the  Irkutsk  County  Zemstvo,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1918.  In  this  section  the  Bolsheviki  had 
taken  control  in  December,  1917,  after  a  bitter 
struggle,  and  were  ejected  early  in  July  by  the 
Czecho-Slovaks. 

"  Before  explaining  the  needs  of  popular  instruc- 
tion and  discussing  a  plan  for  the  reorganization  of 
education  in  the  future,  the  Executive  Committee 
of  the  Zemstvo  of  Irkutsk  County  considers  it  its 
duty  to  present  to  the  General  Meeting  an  account  of 
the  heritage  we  received  from  the  so-called  Commit- 
tee on  Public  Instruction  of  the  Soviet  of  Peasants' 
Deputies  (the  Bolsheviki). 

"  The  Soviet  received  an  efficient  organization 
from  the  School  Inspectors,  who  had  had  six  months 
in  which  to  perfect  an  organization,  and  in  a  literal 
sense  they  left  a  heap  of  ruins.  All  the  records  of 
the  School  Inspectors  and  District  School  Councils 
were  thoroughly  mixed  up,  entangled  and  disorgan- 
ized. School  records  were  lost,  and  even  inspectors' 
reports  and  rough  notes  were  missing.  Individual 
pupil  records  and  the  entire  census  of  families  were 
destroyed.  When  the  Bolsheviki  were  forced  to 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  17 

evacuate  the  city,  records,  papers  and  reports  were 
absolutely  entangled.  Records  were  thrown  in  heaps, 
piled  in  boxes,  and  transported  in  carts  as  on  a  war 
campaign.  During  the  travel  many  of  the  boxes 
were  broken  and  records  scattered  all  along  the  way. 
The  materials  brought  back  from  Homo  to  vo  (the 
last  stronghold  of  the  Bolsheviki  in  the  county)  were 
in  complete  chaos. 

"  Nor  were  conditions  better  in  other  places. 
The  teachers  continued  their  work,  and  did  not  leave 
their  places;  but  seeing  no  authoritative  leaders  at 
the  head,  feeling  that  the  eyes  of  the  master  were 
closed,  they  interrupted  all  but  the  most  necessary 
relations  with  the  Soviet  government.  .  .  . 

"  The  result  of  all  this  was  to  bring  about  an 
unheard  of  collapse  in  school  matters  .  .  ." 

This  was  probably  the  status  of  schools  in  Siberia 
from  November  or  December,  1917,  when  the  Bol- 
sheviki took  control,  until  June,  July  or  August, 
1918,  when  the  Czecho-Slovaks  freed  the  country. 
Statistics  were  destroyed,  records  lost,  schools  dis- 
organized, endowment  funds  appropriated.  It  is 
difficult  to  believe  that  the  purpose  of  the  Bolsheviki 
was  anything  but  completely  to  disorganize  the  life 
of  Siberia. 


i8  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

Nevertheless  schools  were  kept  open  and  loyal 
and  devoted  teachers  continued  their  work,  often 
without  pay. 

These  were  the  conditions  which  confronted  the 
people  in  many  sections  of  Siberia  in  the  fall  of  1918, 
as  they  were  about  to  open  their  schools,  for  the  first 
time  having  an  opportunity  to  realize  the  freedom  of 
the  Revolution.  New  people  were  in  control  of 
schools.  New  ideas  were  beginning  to  be  introduced. 
Variations  due  to  local  autonomy  were  found  from 
place  to  place. 

This  account  tells  of  sichools  actually  seen. 


III.  CONTROL  AND  SUPPORT  OF  EDUCA- 
TION IN  SIBERIA 

THE  organization  of  government  in  Siberia  is 
difficult  to  describe  because  of  its  constant  change. 
During  the  three  weeks  previous  to  the  time  when 
this  was  written  (November  28th)  three  separate 
and  distinct  central  governments  were  in  nominal 
control.  There  was  first  the  Temporary  Siberian 
government,  formed  of  ministers  appointed  by  a 
central  council.  This  was  amalgamated  with  the 
Temporary  All-Russian  government  which  had  met 
at  Ufa.  This  was  superseded  by  the  coup  d'etat  of 
Admiral  Kolchak,  who  assumed  the  place  of  Military 
Dictator.  For  the  purposes  of  educational  study, 
however,  there  was  little  difference,  as  the  Ministry 
of  Education  apparently  remained  the  same.  This 
government  we  shall  term  "  central  government" 

The  next  largest  political  subdivision  of  Siberia 
is  the  state  (Gubernii  or  Oblasti},  a  large  territory 
of  some  500,000  square  miles  area,  On  the  map 
they  can  be  located  as  Tobolsk,  Tomsk,  Semipoliti- 
chensk,  Arkmolinsk,  Yenisei,  Irkutsk,  Zabaikal, 
Amur,  and  Premorsk.  This  we  term  the  "  state." 

19 


20  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

These  in  turn  are  divided  into  counties  (Ouyez- 
dii)  of  some  50,000  square  miles  in  area.  The  county 
in  turn  is  divided  into  rural  "  districts  "  (  Volosti}  or 
the  city  (Gorod). 

The  Ministry  of  Education,  the  educational  divis- 
ion of  the  central  government,  was  appointed  by 
and  responsible  to  the  council  of  all  Siberia.  Under 
Admiral  Kolchak  it  is  responsible  to  him  alone. 

The  government  of  the  state  is  in  control  of  the 
State  Zemstvo,  although  there  is  some  doubt  as  to 
whether  the  new  central  government  wishes  to  per- 
petuate this  government.  However,  it  is  strong  and 
active  and  will  be  difficult  to  replace.  This  Zemstvo 
government  is  organized  as  follows:  The  district 
elects  an  Uprava  or  Executive  Committee  from  all 
the  people,  to  administer  the  local  affairs.  It  also 
elects  delegates  to  the  County  Zemstvo.  These  dele- 
gates elect  a  County  Uprava  to  administer  county 
affairs  and  also  delegates  to  the  State  Zemstvo. 
This  State  Zemstvo  elects  an  Uprava  to  administer 
state  affairs.  When  we  use  the  term  Zemstvo  Meet- 
ing we  mean  in  the  district  the  assembly  of  all  adult 
males,  in  the  county  the  assembly  of  delegates  from 
the  District  Zemstvos,  in  the  state,  the  assembly 
of  delegates  from  the  County  Zemstvos.  These  gov- 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  21 

ernments,  new  in  Siberia,  but  long  in  power  in  Euro- 
pean Russia,  have  administered  village  schools, 
employed  doctors,  veterinary  surgeons,  lawyers,  and 
have  assisted  in  the  production  of  better  crops  and 
more  efficient  marketing. 

The  city,  independent  of  the  Zemstvo,  is  adminis- 
tered by  a  city  council  or  duma,  elected  by  all  the 
people.  Vladivostok  and  Irkutsk  have  councils  of 
100  members.  Committees  of  this  council  run  the 
various  affairs  of  the  city.  The  chairman  of  the 
educational  committee  is  in  effect  city  superintendent 
of  schools,  but  with  far  less  power  than  in  the  United 
States,  the  Siberian  attitude  on  democratic  govern- 
ment being  great  confidence  in  committee  action. 

CENTRAL  GOVERNMENT 

The  central  government,  as  soon  as  the  Bolsheviki 
were  thrown  out  of  power,  assumed  the  lead  in  the 
new  administration  of  schools.  It  issued  a  series  of 
temporary  regulations  which  were  later  confirmed 
by  the  Temporary  Siberian  government,  and  perpetu- 
ated by  later  governments.  Most  of  the  control  of 
the  Higher  Primary  Schools,  gymnasien,  and  teacher 
training  institutions  was  vested  in  local  Pedagogical 
Councils,  one  for  each  school.  This  council  was 


22  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

composed  of  all  the  teachers  of  the  school,  and  repre- 
sentatives from  the  parents  of  the  pupils,  the  local 
city  and  Zemstvo  governments,  and  from  the  finan- 
cial supporters  of  the  school  in  case  it  were  a  pri- 
vately supported  school.  This,  of  course,  was  a 
perpetuation  of  the  principles  of  the  Kerenski  gov- 
ernment. All  the  schools  of  this  type  visited  by 
the  writer  had  such  councils ;  and  from  conferences 
held  with  the  councils  it  can  be  safely  said  that  they 
take  great  interest  in  the  problems  of  school  adminis- 
tration. The  duties  of  the  Pedagogical  Council 
are  the  following:  enrolling,  gradation,  promo- 
tion and  examination  of  pupils,  the  granting  of 
certificates  to  those  leaving  school  and  those  desir- 
ing examination  upon  private  study,  expulsion  of 
pupils,  fixing  details  of  program  of  study  within 
limits  set  by  central  government,  selection  of  text- 
books, supplies  and  magazines,  making  rules  regard- 
ing life  of  the  school,  examination  of  accounts, 
distributing  the  time  of  the  teachers,  selection 
and  discharge  of  teachers  and  other  school  officials, 
business  officers  exceptfed,,  and  the  fortnation 
of  pupil  organizations. 

The    Ministry   of    Education    reserves   certain 
rights.    The  action  of  the  Pedagogical  Council  must 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  23 

receive  the  confirmation  of  the  Minister  of  Education 
on  the  following  points :  The  transfer  of  a  school 
into  one  of  another  type,  the  introduction  into  the 
program  of  studies  of  new  or  supplementary  mate- 
rial, formation  of  parallel  classes,  introduction  of  co- 
education, organization  of  a  dormitory  or  church  in 
a  school,  incurring  of  expenses  not  outlined  in  the 
budget,  and  the  fixing  of  tuition  charges.  The  Minis- 
ter also  reserves  the  right  to  cancel  the  appointment 
of  a  teacher,  and  upon  a  second  trial  by  the  council 
reserves  the  right  himself  to  make  the  appointment. 
It  should  be  noted  that  the  central  government  claims 
no  authority  over  the  Primary  School. 

In  general,  the  Siberian  Government  has  no 
real'  basis  for  authority,  and  only  nominal  control. 
In  practice,  so  far  as  education  is  concerned, 
these  regulations  were  followed  in  the  cities  visited 
by  the  writer. 

In  some  of  the  states,  the  writer  interviewed  the 
local  representative  of  the  Minister  of  Education. 
These  officials  are  inspectors  supported  by  the  Cen- 
tral Government,  and  are  supposed  to  see  that  the 
regulations  are  put  into  effect.  It  is  difficult  to  see 
what  authority  they  have,  however,  or  what  recourse 
they  would  have,  were  the  regulations  violated.  Pos- 


24  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

sibly  the  explanation  lies  in  the  fact  that  there  were 
in  Siberia  during  the  past  autumn  so  many  people  in 
control  of  schools  that  had  never  been  in  similar 
positions  before,  that  they  were  glad  to  accept  any 
guidance  that  was  available. 

The  first  laws  of  the  Temporary  Siberian  gov- 
ernment follow: 

COLLECTED  RULES   AND  REGULATIONS — TEMPORARY   SIBERIAN 
GOVERNMENT. 

Aug.  9,  1918.    No.  5,  Pt.  i. 

Article  45.  Regulation  of  the  Temporary  Siberian  Government, 
July  30.  1918. 

Concerning  the  confirmation  of  the  temporary  regula- 
tions of  the  Ministry  of  Popular  Instruction  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  principles  of  election  to  teaching  and  school 
administrative  positions, 

The  Temporary  Siberian  Government  orders  as  follows : 

(1)  The  temporary  rules  of  the  Ministry  of  Popular  In- 
struction stated  here  are  confirmed. 

(2)  This  regulation  goes  into  effect  with  the  beginning  of 
the  school  year  1918-1919. 

(Signed)  President  of  the  Council  of  Ministers,  P.VOLOGODSKI. 
Member  of  Council  of  Ministers,  M.  SHATILOV. 
For  Ministry  of  Popular  Instruction,  LEVCHENKO. 


TEMPORARY  REGULATIONS  of  the  Ministry  of  Popular  In- 
struction Concerning  the  Administration  of  Popular  Instruc- 
tion and  the  Principles  Basic  to  Election  to  School  Positions. 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  25 

(1)  The  immediate  control  of  the  higher  primary  schools, 
boys'  and  girls'  gymnasiums  and  pro-gymnasiums,  real,  handi- 
craft and  technical  schools,  teachers'  seminaries  and  institutes, 
which  are  supported  largely  by  the  government  treasury  (only 
partly  by  local  sources)  lies  in  the  hands  of  the  Pedagogical 
Councils  of  these  schools.    Control  means  educational  as  well 
as  economic  administration. 

(2)  The   pedagogical    councils    of    schools    mentioned   in 
Article  i  consists  of  the  teachers  of  the  school,  the  school  doc- 
tor, representatives  of  the  local  Zemstvo  and  city  government, 
one  from  each,  and  representatives  of  parent,  organizations  if 
there  are  such.    The  number  of  representatives  of  parent  or- 
ganizations must  not  exceed  one-third  of  the  teachers. 

Note :  The  exact  number  of  representatives  of  parent  or- 
ganizations is  fixed  at  the  beginning  of  the  school  year  in  the) 
general  assembly  of  the  parents  of  the  pupils  of  the  school. 

(3)  The  representatives  of  the  Zemstvo  and  City  govern- 
ments are  elected  at  meetings  of  Zemstvos  or  City  Councils 
(Duma).    If  elections  in  Zemstvo  and  City  governments  are! 
impossible,  temporary  appointments  may  be  made  by  the  ex- 
ecutive committee  (Uprava)  of  the  Zemstvo  or  City  until  the 
regular  election. 

(4)  All  teachers,  the  doctor  and  the  officers  of  admin- 
istration excepting  the  secretary,  bookkeeper,  business  man- 
ager, and  clerk  are  elected  by  the  majority  vote  of  the 
Pedagogical  Council. 

Note    i. — Experienced   teachers,   out   of   service,    may   be 
elected  by  the  Pedagogical  Council  for  a  time  to  be  determined 
by  the  Pedagogical  Council. 
3 


26  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

Note  2. — New  teachers  are  elected  by  the  Pedagogical  Coun- 
cil for  one  year  only,  but  may  be  reappointed. 

(5)  To  the  position  of  teacher  are  elected  only  persons  of 
fixed  and  definite  educational  preparation.  To  the  position  of 
Director,  President  of  the  Pedagogical  Council,  or  First  As- 
sistant to  the  Director  may  be  elected  only  persons  who  have 
fulfilled  the  requirements  of  the  law  and  have  had  at  least  five 
years  of  school  experience.    To  the  position  of  Directress  may 
only  be  appointed  a  graduate  of  a  Superior  School,  the  highest 
educational  training.     The   school   doctor  is   elected  by  the 
Pedagogical  Council  from  candidates  recommended  by  the  Doc- 
tors' Sanitary  Council,  if  one  exists. 

Note  i. — In  newly  opened  schools,  the  right  of  election  of 
directors  and  other  administrative  officials  is  reserved  to  the 
executive  committee  of  the  State  Zemstvo  or  with  its  permis- 
sion the  executive  committee  of  the  County  Zemstvo  or  City. 

Note  2. — The  teachers  in  newly  opened  schools  are  elected 
from  candidates  recommended  by  the  Director,  by  whoever  is 
in  charge  of  the  school  and  by  the  Teachers'  Union. 

(6)  When  teachers  and  administrators  are  elected  as  in 
Article  5,  their  appointment  must  be  confirmed  by  the  Minister 
of  Popular  Instruction  (within  three  days  after  election  their 
names  must  bei  sent  to  the  Minister  by  the  Pedagogical  Coun- 
cil) and  until  the  answer  of  the  Minister  the  elected  candidates 
are  in  charge. 

(7)  In  the  event  that  the  Minister  does  not  confirm  the 
elections,  the  Pedagogical  Council,  the  State  Zenastvo  Execu- 
tive Committee,  or  that  of  the  County  Zemstvo  or  City  Govern- 
ment, as  the  case  may  be,  must  within  one  week  re-elect  the 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  27 

teachers  or  administrative  officials,  that  is,  hold  another  elec- 
tidn.  If  the  new  elections  are  protested  by  the  Minister,  the 
vacant  places  are  filled  by  appointment  of  the  Minister. 

Note  i. — In  places  where  the  Zemstvo  is  not  yet  organized, 
the  rights  mentioned  in  Note  i  and  2,  Article  5,  reverts  to  the 
Ministry  of  Popular  Instruction. 

(8)  At  the  end  of  the  school  year,  if  one-third  of  the  Peda- 
gogical Council  so  desires,  there  can  be  re-election  of  individual 
teachers ;  and  the  teacher  who  does  not  receive  a  majority  vote 
is  not  re-elected.  The  person  not  re-elected  must  at  once  re- 
ceive a  copy  of  the  minutes  of  the  meeting,  together  with  state- 
ments of  each  individual  who  voted  against  him,  and  within 
five  days  he  has  the  right  to  appeal  to  the  Minister  of  Popular 
Instruction,  handing  over  a  written  protest  to  the  Pedagogical 
Council  of  the  school  in  question.  The  ordinance  of  non-election 
together  with  the  protest  must  be  sent  to  the  Ministry  of 
Popular  Instruction  for  confirmation,  who  in  two  weeks  from 
the  day  of  receipt,  confirms  or  rejects  the  action  of  the  Peda- 
gogical Council. 

Note  i. — In  exceptional  cases  if  the  Minister  agrees,  this  re- 
balloting  may  otcur  before  the  end  of  the  school  year. 

Note  2. — Teachers  who  have  served  long  enough  to  receive 
pensions  must  be  voted  upon  each  year,  and  their  election  is 
as  shown  above. 

Note  3 — Administrative  officers  who  are  not  re-elected 
lose  their  places,  but  have  the  right  to  teach  if  the  Pedagogical 
Council  will  make  this  provision. 


28  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

DIVISION   II 

(9)  The  regulations  given  in  the  First  Division  of  these 
rules  concern  also  the  higher  primary  schools,  boys'  and  girls' 
and   mixed   gymnasiums   and   pro-gymnasiums,    real   schools, 
teachers'   seminaries,   industrial  and  technical   schools,  which 
are  not  primarily  supported  by  the  government,  but  which  re- 
ceive the  majority  of  their  support  from  local  funds,  Zemstvos 
and  cities,  guilds,  societies  and  private  individuals,  with  the 
following  changes. 

(10)  In  the   Pedagogical   Councils  of   the  above  named 
schools  are  included  in  addition  to  those  named  above  two 
supporters  or  representatives  of  the  supporters  of  the  above 
named  schools. 

Note  i — In  the  Pedagogical  Councils  of  Higher  Prim- 
ary Schools,  the  supporter  can  be  represented  by  only 
one  individual. 

Ncfye  2. — Extraordinary  representation  of  supporters  is 
only  found  when  the  supporter  is  a  Zemstvo  or  city. 

(n)  The  right  to  raise  the  question  of  reballoting  of  ad- 
ministrators and  teachers  belongs  also  to  the  supporters  of 
schools  and  their  representatives. 

(12)  To  supporters  of  newly  opened  schools  is  given  the 
right,  during  two  years  after  the  school  has  received  the  full 
privileges  of  governmental  schools  to  recommend  to  the  Minister 
of  Popular  Instruction  candidates  for  all  positions,  and  also  in 
due  order  to  recommend  their  discharge.  In  case  of  discord 
about  the  discharge  of  persons  connected  with  the  school 
between  the  supporter  and  the  Pedagogical  Council,  this  ques- 
tion is  settled  by  the  Minister  of  Popular  Instruction. 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  29 

Note  J. — Supporters  of  schools  which  have  received  full 
governmental  privileges  since  September  i,  1916,  are  given 
these  rights  until  two  years  from  the  day  when  the  school  re- 
ceived these  rights. 

(13)  Change  from  one  supporter  to  another  gives  these 
rights  only  for  two  years  from  the  time  when  the  school  be- 
came a  governmental  school. 

(14)  In  all  schools  which  are  supported  by  local  money 
without  help  from  the  National  Treasury  there  must  be  added  a 
Supervisory    Council      In   this    council   must   be    included   a 
representative  from  the  local  government  and  one  from  the 
parent  organizations. 

(15)  The  findings  of  the  Pedagogical  Council  concerning 
elections  or  reballoting  mentioned  above,  are  sent  to  the  Min- 
istry of  Popular  Instruction,  together  with  the  opinion  of  the 
Supervisory  Council,  which  has  the  right  to  protest  the  con- 
clusions of  the  Pedagogical  Council,  within  one  week  of  the 
day  of  receipt. 

DIVISION  III 

(16)  The  Pedagogical  Council   of   Schools  mentioned  in 
Division  I  has  the  following  rights: 

a.  Enrolling  pupils  according  to  regulations  in  force. 

b.  Examining  pupils  for  gradation,  promotion  and  gradu- 
ation. 

c.  Promotion  of  pupils. 

d.  Examination  of  those  not  studying  in  schools  and  giving 
certificates  for  private  study,  according  to    rules  and  regula- 
tions in  force. 

e.  Granting  certificates  to  graduates  and  appropriate  cer- 
tificates to  those  leaving  school  before  graduation. 


30  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

/.  Expulsion  of  pupils. 

g.  Fixing  the  details  of  programs  of  teaching  in  the  vari- 
ous subjects  according  to  the  plans  of  the  Ministry  of 
Popular  Instruction. 

h.  Selection  of  books  and  school  supplies. 

i.  Selections  of  books  and  magazines  for  the  school  library. 

;.  Fixing  of  rules  regarding  the  social  life  of  the  school  and 
of  room  and  board  of  pupils. 

k.  Institution  of  measures  to  improve  the  knowledge  and 
conduct  of  the  pupils. 

/,  Examination  of  accounts  of  administrators,  teachers,  class 
supervisors,  tutors,  economic,  finance  and  other  committees  of 
the  Pedagogical  Council. 

m.  Determination  of  the  duties  of  teachers  and  distribution 
of  teaching  and  other  duties  among  them. 

n.  Formation  of  a  committee  to  review  economic  and  ad- 
ministrative questions,  and  to  fulfill  special  orders  of  the  Peda- 
gogical Council. 

Note. — In  these  committees  may  be  included  pupils  of 
Teachers'  .Seminaries  and  Institutions,  pupils  from  the  higher 
classes  of  the  gymnasium,  the  number  being  fixed  by  the 
Pedagogical  Council. 

o.  Carrying  out  into  practice  and  establishing  the  method  of 
election  and  reballotment  as  outlined  above. 

p.  Election  of  class  supervisors,  tutors,  secretaries,  libra- 
rians, members  of  committees,  etc. 

q.  Forming  of  pupil  organizations. 

r.  Election  of  members  of  the  auditing  committee,  and 
finance  committee. 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  3 1 

Note. — The  activities  of  these  committees  are  regulated  by 
special  instructions  of  the  Pedagogical  Council. 

DIVISION  IV 

The  following  matters,  concluded  by  the  Pedagogical  Coun- 
cil, must  receive  the  confirmation  of  the  Minister  of  Popular 
Instruction : 

1.  The  transformation  of  a  school  into  one  of  another  type 
and  the  method  of  this  transformation. 

2.  The  introduction  into  the  program  of  studies  of  addi- 
tional or  supplementary  subjects  not  foreseen  in  the  programs 
and  plans  in  force. 

3.  The  formation  of  parallel  classes. 

4.  The  introduction  of  co-education. 

5.  The   organization   of   a   dormitory  and   church   in  the 
school. 

6.  The  incurring  of  expenses  not  foreseen  in  the  budget. 

7.  The  fixing  of  tuition  charges  and  charges   for  room 
and  board. 

DIVISION  v 

(1)  The  rights  mentioned  in  Division  III  also  belong  to 
schools  mentioned  in  Division  II. 

(2)  The   matters   mentioned   in   Division   IV,  being  first 
discussed  by  the  Pedagogical  Council  and  finally  decided  by  the 
Minister  of  Popular  Instruction,  and  all  matters  which  concern 
the  economic  management  of  the  schools  of  Division  II,  are 
recommended  by  the  Pedagogical  Council  to  the  Supervisory 
Council  and  by  the  latter  to  the  Minister  of  Popular  Instruction. 

(3)  The   Supervisory  Council  must  submit  to  the  Peda- 
gogical Council  an  account  of  its  economic  activities. 


32  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

(4)  In  those  schools,  where  for  some  reason,  the  Supervis- 
ory Council  has  not  been  established  within  three  months  of  the 
publication  of  these  regulations,  the  rights  of  economic  man- 
agement belonging  to  the  Pedagogical  Councils  of  the  schools 
of  Division  I  are  granted  to  the  Pedagogical  Councils  of  the 
schools  mentioned  in  Division  II. 

Note. — During  the  three  months  these  rights  belong  to  the 
supporters  of  the  school. 

Article  46.    Regulations  of  the  Temporary  Siberian  Govern- 
ment, July  jo,  19 1 8 

Concerning  Confirmation  of  Rules   for  the   Reelection   of 
Teachers  in  Schools  of  the  Ministry  of  Popular  Instruction. 
The  Temporary  Siberian  Government  Orders. 

(1)  Because  the  right  of  electing  teachers  and  school  ad- 
ministrators is  reserved  to  the  Pedagogical  Councils  of  Teach- 
ers' Institutes  and  Seminaries,  Boy  and  Girl  Gymnasiums,  Pro- 
gymnasiums,  Real,  Technical,  Industrial  and  Higher  Primary 
Schools,   the  members   of   the   Pedagogical   Councils   of    the 
above  named  schools  must  in  turn  be  reflected  before  the  be- 
ginning of  the  school  year,  1918-9;  and  the  time  of  such  reelec- 
tion must  be  fixed  between  the  loth  and  2Oth  of  August,  so  that 
reflections  may  be  completed  one  and  one-half  or  two  weeks 
before  the  beginning  of  the  school  year. 

(2)  For  the  clearer  definition  of  the  method  of  reelection 
the  following  rules  are  confirmed : 

(Signed) 

President  of  the  Committee  of  Ministers,  P.  VOLOGODSKI. 
Member  of  Committee  of  Ministers,  M.  SHATILOV. 
For    the    Administration    of    the    Ministry    of    Popular 
Instruction,  LEVCHENKO. 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  33 

ADDITIONAL  REGULATIONS 

Rules  for  the  Reelection  of  Teachers  in  Schools  of  the 
Ministry  of  Popular  Instruction. 

(1)  The  Pedagogical  Council  of  each  school  has  power  to 
reelect    teachers.      At    this    meeting    there    must    be    present 
two    representatives    from    the    local    city    government    and 
from  the  Zemstvo. 

(2)  No  less  than  two-thirds  of  the  total  membership  con- 
stitutes a  quorum. 

(3)  Notice  of  the  day  and  hour  of  reelection  is  to  be  sent 
by  the  Director  (in  girls'  gymnasiums  by  the  President  of  the 
Pedagogical    Council)    to   all   members    of   the    Pedagogical 
Council,  to  the  executive  committees  of  the  Zemstvo  and  City 
governments   and  to   the   Parents'    Committee.     This   notice 
must  be  sent  at  least  three  days  in  advance  of  the  meeting. 

(4)  The  President  and  Secretary  of  the  meeting  are  to  be 
elected  by  secret  ballot  from  the  members  present. 

(5)  The  individual  whose  name  is  up  for  reelection1  shall 
not  be  present  at  the  meeting.     Before  the   balloting  there 
must  be  discussion  of  the  individual  and  declarations  made 
concerning  him. 

(6)  The   secretary   must   keep   complete   minutes    of    the 
meeting.    These  must  be  signed  by  all  present. 

Note. — The  opinions  expressed  about  people  up  for  reelec- 
tion are  not  to  be  made  public,  but  upon  written  request 
the  interested  party  may  have  from  the  secretary  a  writ- 
ten transcript  of  that  portion  of  the  minutes  which  con- 
cerns him  individually. 

(7)  If  during  the  discussion  of  individuals  up  for  reelec- 
tion, debatable  questions  arise  which  are  founded  on  facts,  such 


34  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

individuals  are  invited  to  the  meeting  for  their  declarations 
concerning  these  questions;  and  the  ballot  is  to  be  taken  only 
after  this  declaration  has  been  made. 

(8)  These  questions  shall  be  judged  only  from  their  peda- 
gogical and  social  significance. 

(9)  The  individual  who  receives  not  less  than  one-half  the 
votes  is  counted  reflected. 

(10)  Individuals  not  reflected,  finding  a  violation  of  the 
rules  of  the  process  of  reelection,  may  within  five  days  address 
a  complaint  to  the  Minister  of  Popular  Instruction,  through 
the  Pedagogical  Council  in  its  enlarged  membership. 

Note. — Teachers  in  higher  primary  schools  direct  their  com- 
plaints in  the  same  manner  to  the  Executive  Committee  of  the 
State  Zemstvo,  which  presents  these  complaints  for  the  final 
settlement  of  the  Minister. 

(n)  Teachers  who  are  not  reflected  have  the  right  to  be- 
come candidates  at  other  schools,  and  are  subject  to  election 
as  new-entering  teachers  according  to  the  rules  of  July  30,  1918. 

(12)  In  schools  where  reflections  have  already  been  voted 
upon  according  to  rules  which  approximate  the  present  ones, 
the  process  need  not  be  repeated,  but  individuals  who  received 
more  than  one-half  but  less  than  two-thirds  of  the  electoral 
ballots  are  subject  to  reballoting  in  the  Pedagogical  Council. 

(13)  Individuals  who  have  avoided  reballoting  according 
to  the  present  rules  are  considered  to  have  left  the  teaching 
profession. 

(14)  Individuals  not  reflected  must  receive  salary  accord- 
ing to  the  schedule  of  the  past  year  for  three  months  in 
advance,  to  date  from  August  i,  1918. 

For  the  Minister  of  Popular  Instruction, 

LEVCHENKO. 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  35 

ZEMSTVO  GOVERNMENT 

The  State  Zemstvo  has  control  of  education 
within  its  boundaries,  educational  institutions  in  the 
larger  cities  excepted.  This  in  effect  means  that  the 
Zemstvo  has  control  only  of  the  Primary  Schools 
and  a  very  few  Higher  Primary  Schools  that  happen 
to  be  in  the  villages.  It  has  complete  control  of  the 
Primary  Schools,  appointing  teachers,  selecting  text- 
books, determining  the  program  of  studies,  all  finan- 
cial matters,  etc.  In  the  Higher  Primary  Schools  it 
is  represented  on  the  Pedagogical  Council  and  in 
practice  assumes  control.  Even  in  the  secondary 
schools  in  the  cities  it  is  represented  on  the  Pedagogi- 
cal Councils,  while  the  city  Higher  Primary  Schools 
of  Irkutsk  are  controlled  by  the  Zemstvo.  This,  it 
is  said,  is  not  common. 

The  Zemstvo  selects  and  pays  the  teachers  and 
furnishes  books  and  supplies  to  the  schools.  The 
local  villages  furnish  light  (an  important  item  in 
Siberia  where  the  sun  rises  after  nine  and  sets  before 
three  in  November),  heat,  janitor  service  and  quar- 
ters for  the  teacher. 

The  Director  of  Education  of  the  State  Execu- 
tive Committee  is  the  real  head  of  the  schools  of 
the  state,  corresponding  to  our  State  Superintendent. 


36  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

The  Director  of  Education  of  the  County  Zemstvo 
corresponds  to  our  County  Superintendent.  Some 
Zemstvos  have  established  travelling  supervisors. 
An  account  of  the  educational  activities  of  a  typical 
Zemstvo  follows: 

REPORT  TO  THE  ZEMSTVO  MEETING  OF  THE  NEEDS  OF  POPULAR 
INSTRUCTION    IN    THE   IRKUTSK    COUNTY. 

(Date  about  September  15,  1918.) 

On  July  19,  1918,  the  County  Zemstvo  through  its  Executive 
Committee  formed  a  Division  of  Popular  Instruction  under  the 
direction  of  A.  E.  GROSHKOV  with  M.  V.  KNOOAZEV. 

The  first  task  of  the  division  was  the  organization  of  the 
business  of  the  schools,  securing  lists  of  teachers  and  schools, 
and  the  paying  of  salaries  to  teachers  who  had  not  been  paid  in 
several  months.  This  has  not  yet  been  completed,  and  the 
efforts  to  establish  business  and  administrative  order  continues. 
The  second  task  was  the  furnishing  the  schools  with  text- 
books and  supplies.  As  mentioned  before,  very  few  schools  had 
made  such  requests.  Nevertheless  all  the  schools  of  the  county 
must  be  supplied  with  books  and  materials  of  all  sorts.  The 
School  Division  of  the  County  Zemstvo  estimates  that  a  sum 
of  Roubles,  57,089,  must  be  expended  to  supply  this  need,  a 
sum  of  Roubles,  300-350  for  each  school.  This  sum  is  not 
excessive.  On  the  contrary,  the  most  rigid  economy  has  been 
exercised  in  making  this  estimate,  only  the  most  necessary 
books  being  provided.  The  furnishing  of  scho'ol  libraries  is 
not  included.  This  budget  has  been  presented  to  the  State 
Zemstvo  with  the  request  that  it  grant  the  necessary  money. 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  37 

At  the  same  time  the  County  Zemstvo  Executive  Commit- 
tee requested  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Tomsk  State 
Zemstvo  to  sell  them  books  of  their  printing,  and  investigated 
the  possibility  of  purchasing  text-books  and  school  sup- 
plies of  local  firms,  in  the  Union  of  Societies  of  Consumers 
(Iroyuse)  ;  and  in  addition  it  intends  at  the  earliest  possible 
moment  to  open  commercial  relations  with  book  and  supply 
firms  of  the  Far  East. 

The  school  buildings  are  in  very  bad  repair.  Funds  are  not 
available  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  school  societies  and  man- 
agers, nor  is  there  a  technical  organization  which  could  be 
charged  with  the  supervision  of  building,  or  with  the  forma- 
tion of  budgets  or  the  drawing  of  plans;  nor  is  there  an  in- 
dividual who  could  be  entrusted  with  it.  The  lack  of  workmen 
is  keenly  felt,  especially  in  this  kind  of  work. 

The  Zemstvo  needs  its  own  agents  to  organize  out-of-school 
education.  Individuals  are  needed  to  help  the  teachers  organize 
schools  on  a  new  basis  and  to  put  into  practice!  the  plans  of 
the  Zemstvo  and  the  Minister  of  Popular  Instruction.  The 
county  certainly  needs  two  such  individuals,  Instructors  of  Pop- 
ular Education.  To  meet  this  need,  the  County  Zemstvo  Execu- 
tive Committee  petitioned  the  State  Zemstvo  to  grant  enough 
money  to  support  two  such  Instructors  with  a  salary  of  400 
roubles  a  month.  To  these  positions  it  is  proposed  to  appoint, 
according  to  the  recommendation  of  the  Teachers'  Union,  the 
former  Instructor  of  Popular  Instruction  A.  I.  PHILPOV,  and 
the  well  known  worker  for  public  education  Mrs.  O.  I.  PATLUK. 
Up  to  the  present  these  appointments  are  in  doubt,  as  the 


38  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

means  have  not  been  granted  by  the  State  Zemstvo.  It  may  be 
stated  with  certainty  that  the  work  in  many  schools  cannot 
be  organized  until  these  Instructors  have  had  opportunity  to 
visit  schools  and  to  lend  assistance.  It  would  be  desirable 
if  the  General  Meeting  would  ratify  this  request  of 
the  Executive  Committee. 

The  next  plan  of  the  Division  of  Popular  Instruction  is  the 
institution  of  a  book  store,  a  factory  of  school  supplies  and 
travelling  libraries  and  museums  which  belong  to  the  Zemstvo. 
Thinking  that  this  should  be  the  function  of  a  more  powerful 
organization  the  Executive  Committee  addressed  itself  to  the 
State  Zemstvo  Executive  Committee  with  this  request.  Our 
young  Zemstvo  will  take  an  active  part  in  putting  these  re- 
forms into  practice. 

The  questions  of  interior  reform  and  the  development  of 
schools  according  to  modern  principles  also  interested  the 
Co'unty  Zemstvo.  This  can  be  accomplished  in  only  one  way, 
namely,  the  raising  of  the  mental  level  of  the  teachers.  This 
can  only  be  accomplished  by  pedagogical  courses.  The  Dis- 
trict Uprava  has  taken  an  active  part  in  this  work  in  the  courses 
in  September  of  the  present  year.  The  funds  were  supplied  by 
the  Temporary  Siberian  Government  and  the  School  Division 
of  the  Trans-Baikal  Railway.  If  the  Zemstvo  meeting  deems 
such  courses  to  be1  desirable  it  should  furnish  free  transporta- 
tion for  teachers  from  their  homes  to  Irkutsk  and  return. 
These  courses  continue  for  fifteen  days.  Half  the  time  is  spent 
in  theoretical  work  (lectures  in  pedagogy,  civics,  especially  the 
working  of  Zemstvos,  cooperatives,  etc.),  and  practical  (clay 
work,  paper  work,  basketry,  etc.).  The  County  Zemstvo  is  not 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  39 

oblivious  to  the  defects  due  to  the  short  time  of  these  courses. 
Next  year  it  hopes  to  organize  them  for  a  longer  period  with 
an  enlarged  program,  profiting  by  the  experience  of  the  present 
year.  However,  the  first  step  is  important 


A  very  serious  question  in  our  schools,  which  has  a  very 
important  influence  upon  the  whole  question  of  education  is 
the  abnormal  economic  condition  in  which  each  school  is 
living.  The  local  community,  at  the  formation  of  a  school, 
agrees  to  furnish  heat,  light,  janitor  service,  a  guard  at  night, 
and  quarters  for  the  teacher.  This  is  given  without  any  as- 
sistance from  the  Zemstvo,  which  merely  pays  the  salary  of 
the  teacher,  and  furnishes  supervision  and  supplies.  Un- 
fortunately many  communities  fulfill  their!  share  of  the  agree- 
ment irregularly,  meagerly  or  not  atf  all.  Due  to  this,  schools 
are  often  cold,  unclean,  not  guarded  at  night  and  dark. 
Teachers  are  compelled  to  rent  apartments  because  those 
provided  are  small,  damp  and  cold.  These  teachers  are  com- 
pelled to  petition  the  executive  committee  of  the  district  Zemstvo 
with  endless  demands,  complaints  and  requests ;  and  often  these 
requests  meet  with  rudeness  and  humiliation.  The  arduous  life 
of  the  solitary  teacher  becomes  more  hard,  and  godd  ideas  and 
fine  ambitions  become  broken)  against  these  obstacles.  It  is 
the  purpose  of  the  Zemstvo  to  improve  this  condition,  to  put  the 
teacher  in  such  a  place  and  under  such  conditions  as  not  to 
require  constant  heroism  and  courage,  so  that  it  will  be  not 
entirely  a  life  of  suffering,  but  rather  that  his  energies  may 
be  freed  for  higher  service. 


40  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

The  way  to  change  the  conditions  described  above  is  to 
change  the  form  of  taxation  from  a  tax  in  kind  to  a  tax  in 
money  and  to  transfer  to  the  Zemstvo  all  the  expenses  con- 
nected with  the  schools.  If  the  County  Zemstvo  accepts  this, 
approximately  the  following  sums  must  be  raised: 

Roubles. 

Heating  150  school  buildings 75,000.00 

Lighting  150  school  buildings 7,500.00 

Employing  guards,  150  school  buildings 45,000.00 

Cleaning  schools 7,500.00 

Minor  repairs 15,000.00 

Apartments  for  teachers  10.000.00 


Total 160,000.00 

In  the  present  state  of  our  finances,  with  small  income  from 
taxes,  and  an  absence  of  a  proper  organization  for  the  collec- 
tion of  taxes,  it  will  be  impossible  for  the  County  Zemstvo  to 
assume  this  burden  during  the  present  year. 

Nevertheless,  the  Zemstvo  meeting  should  declare  definitely 
the  necessity  of  substituting  a  tax  in  money  for  the  tax  in  kind ; 
and  the  Executive  Committee  carrying  out  the  plans  of 
the  meeting  will  formulate  a  plan  for  the  reorganization 
of  the  management  and  support  of  the  schools.  This  change 
will  be  very  important  in  bettering  educational  conditions 
in  Irkutsk  County. 

The  next  reform  on  the  program  of  the  Zemstvo  is  the 
change  in  the  two-teacher  schools,  transforming  them  into 
Higher  Primary  Schools.  The  defects  of  our  two-teacher 
schools  have  been  obvious  for  a  long  time.  They  were  not 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  41 

without  reason  called  "blind  alleys"  (tupik)  into  which  the 
Tsar's  government  drove  the  peasant  children  so  that  they 
could  under  no  circumstances  climb  the  ladder  of  learning. 

At  the  present  time  the  doors  must  be  opened  to  all  the! 
people.  Blind  alleys  must  be  abolished  and  in  their  place 
schools  must  be  established  which  will  freely  lead  to  the  sec- 
ondary and  superior  schools.  Such  schools  would  be  the 
Higher  Primary  Schools.  This  reform  seems  to  be  impossible 
within  the  present  year,  because  of  a  lack  of  funds,  trained 
teachers,  buildings,  supplies  and  equipment.  Nevertheless 
the  Executive  Committee  desires  that  the  Zemstvo  Meeting 
express  its  desires  in  this  matter  and  recommend  to 
the  Executive  Committee  the  further  formulation  of  plans 
for  this  necessary  reform. 


In  conclusion,  allow  me  to  present  the  statistics  of  schools 
in  the  County  of  Irkutsk  : 

Total  schools  ..........................    159 

Two-teacher  schools  ............  24 

One-teacher  schools  .............  135 

Former  church  schools  ____  53 

Former  ministry  schools...  77 
Former  Buryat  schools  ____  29 

Male  teachers  .....................  ......  82 

Female  teachers   .......  .................  121 

with  Superior  education  ............        I 

with  special  secondary  education  ____   131 

with  Teacher's  Certificate  ..........      66 

without  Teacher's  Certificate  ......         5 

4 


42  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

Pupils  in  school  approximately 8,560 

Boys   5,251 

Girls 3,309 

Schools  located  in  own  building 124 

Schools  in  rented  quarters 35 

The  buildings  are  in  bad  repair.  School  furniture  needs 
renovation.  Libraries  are  empty,  supplies  insufficient.  All  this 
is  a  part  of  the  plan  of  the  Executive  Committee.  Relying  on 
your  support  and  help  from  local  governments  and  the  work 
of  teachers,  it  trusts  that  it  will  fulfill  during  the  coming  year 
its  duty  to  the  people. 

The  same  must  be  said  of  the  Division  of  Out-of-School 
Education.  It  plans  to  establish  a  series  of  Zemstvo  libraries, 
evening  courses  for  adults,  children's  playgrounds  and  houses 
for  children,  social  centers  for  adults.  The  carrying  of  this 
plan  into  practice  depends  entirely  upon  appropriations  from 
the  Temporary  Siberian  Government,  the  State  Zemstvo  and 
the  activities  of  private  individuals  in  the  local  communities. 
The  County  Zemstvo  Executive  Committee  will  do  its  part  by 
petitioning  the  central  government  and  by  stirring  up  interest 
in  the  various  villages.  The  Instructors  of  Popular  Education 
will  give  great  assistance,  for  they  will  be  the  real  adminis- 
trative officers  of  the  Division  of  Popular  Education. 
******** 

Summing  up  the  whole  report,  the  Executive  Committee 
places  before  the  meeting  the  following  theses : 

(i)  Thinking  the  employment  of  two  Instructors  of  Popu- 
lar Instruction  necessary  to  the  development  of  schools  in  the 
various  villages,  the  local  meeting  solemnly  requests  the  Execu- 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  43 

tive  Committee  of  the  State  Zemstvo  to  appropriate  money  im- 
mediately according  to  the  estimate. 

(2)  Whereas  the  development  of  instruction  comes  only 
from  raising  the  mental  level  of  the  teachers,  and  whereas  the 
method  of  achieving  this  is  the  organization  of  a  teachers*  in- 
stitute, we  recommend  that  the  Executive  Committee  continue 
its  workf  in  the  organization  of  such  courses,  we  thank  the 
Central  Government  and  the  State  Zemstvo  for  its  aid,  and  on 
our  part  we  appropriate  money  to  pay  the  transportation  of 
these  teachers  from  their  homes  to  Irkutsk  and  return. 

(3)  Considering  the  small  income  from  taxes,  the  poverty 
of  the  treasury  and  the  small  likelihood  of  effecting  an  efficient 
means  of  gathering  taxes  in  the  near  future,  we  recommend 
that  the  question  of  a  change  from  a  tax  in  kind  to  a  tax  in 
money  lie  on  the  table  until  the  next  meeting.    At  the  same 
time  the  Zemstvo  Meeting,  agreeing  with  the  opinion  of  its 
Executive    Committee,   finds   the   present   method   of   school 
finance  not  suitable,  that  the  transition  from  taxes  in  kind  to 
taxes  in  money  is  quite  necessary,  and  it  recommends  that  the 
Executive  Committee  present  to   the   next  annual   Zemstvo 
meeting  a  detailed  plan  for  a  new  method  of  school  finance. 

(4)  Considering  that  the  present  two-teacher  schools  do  not 
meet  the  educational  needs  of  the  common  people,  that  schools 
leading  to  higher  schools  must  be  near  to  the  homes  of  the 
people,    the    Zemstvo    meeting    thinks    that    all    two-teacher 
schools  should  be  transformed  into  Higher  Primary  Schools, 
and  recommends  to  the  Executive  Committee  to  formulate 
plans  and  a  budget  for  this  reform  to  be  presented  at  the 
next  annual  meeting  of  the  Zemstvo. 


44  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

(5)  Inasmuch  as  the  question  of  out-of-school  education  is 
of  tremendous  importance  under  present  conditions  the  Zem- 
stvo  meeting  finds  it  urgently  necessary  to  cover  the  country 
with  a  net  of  libraries,  Sunday  and  evening  schools,  social 
center  buildings,  and  playgrounds  for  children.  The  accom- 
plishment of  this  project  depends  upon  the  financial  support 
of  the  central  government,  the  State  Zemstvo,  the  cooperatives, 
and  various  private  organizations.  We  recommend  that  the 
Executive  Committee  formulate  a  general  plan  for  out-of- 
school  education,  methods  of  supporting  it  and  putting  it  into 
practice.  We  recommend  that  the  Instructors  of  Popular 
Education  be  charged  with  its  administration,  the  plan  to  be 
confirmed  at  the  next  annual  meeting. 

(Signed)  GROSHKOV. 

CITY  GOVERNMENT 

The  Chairman  of  the  Educational  Committee  of 
the  City  Duma  is  practically  the  City  Superintendent 
of  Schools.  He  has  three  large  functions:  (i)  He 
is  the  clearing  house  for  the  work  of  the  Pedagogical 
Councils  of  the  various  Higher  Primary  and  Second- 
ary Schools.  Where  each  council  is  practically  auton- 
omous, great  confusion  in  the  election  of  teachers, 
determination  of  the  territory  belonging  to  each 
school,  and  transfer  from  school  to  school,  is  certain 
to  arise.  The  fact  that  he  is  a  common  member  of 
many  councils  is  a  source  of  a  good  deal  of  power. 
(2)  He  is  the  financial  agent  for  all  the  Primary 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  45 

and  Higher  Primary  Schools  of  the  city,  arranging 
for  the  payment  of  salaries,  purchase  of  equipment, 
construction  repair  and  rental  (many  school  build- 
ings in  Siberian  cities  were  privately  built  and  rented 
to  the  city)  of  buildings,  and  financial  and  business 
affairs  of  all  sorts.  (3)  He  is  in  complete  charge 
of  the  Primary  Schools  of  the  city.  The  relative 
power  of  the  Chairman  and  the  rest  of  the  Com- 
mittee varies  from  place  to  place. 

Up  to  the  present  time  the  financing  of  education 
has  been  of  three  sorts — governmental,  local  and 
private.  The  Temporary  Siberian  Government  has 
given  some  money  to  schools  this  year.  The  exact 
sum  is  difficult  to  estimate.  Government  officials 
say  that  the  government  pays  60  per  cent,  to  70  per 
cent,  of  the  school  costs.  Inquiring  of  various  school 
officials  it  seems  probable  that  the  central  govern- 
ment has  paid  some  money  to  secondary  schools  and 
small  sums  for  certain  other  general  educational  pur- 
poses such  as  the  support  of  normal  schools  and  the 
subsidy  of  teachers'  institutes.  Local  support  by  the 
Zemstvos  and  cities  is  the  largest  means  of  support. 
They  collect  taxes  as  best  they  can.  There  is  no  such 
thing  as  a  state  school  fund  or  a  special  school  tax. 
Even  when  supplemented  by  taxes  "  in  kind  "  the 


46  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

money  falls  far  short  of  the  needs.  This  is  accen- 
tuated by  the  exceptional  economic  conditions. 
Prices  have  risen  to  an  unheard-of  extent,  due  to  the 
depreciation  of  the  rouble  and  the  breakdown  of 
transportation.  The  Russian  thinks  of  the  rouble 
as  a  rouble  was  before  the  Revolution.  Only  the 
prices  have  risen.  When  a  pair  of  rubbers  costs  200 
roubles,  shoes  500,  a  meal  20,  when  formerly  they 
were  two,  five  and  one,  demands  upon  a  government 
for  expenditure  cannot  be  met  by  any  old  standards. 
Private  support  is  the  largest  factor  in  the  support 
of  all  schools  except  the  Primary  and  Higher  Pri- 
mary Schools.  They  are  at  present  in  a  bad  finan- 
cial condition.  Tuition  charges  have  not  advanced 
in  proportion  to  the  depreciation  in  currency.  Rarely 
has  the  advance  been  more  than  60  per  cent., 
while  the  rouble  has/  depreciated  to  one-fifth  of  its 
former  value.  The  income  from  endowment  has 
similarly  depreciated;  and  in  some  sections  the 
entire  endowment  was  appropriated  by  the  Bol- 
sheviki.,  In  Irkutsk  even  the  funds  of  the  schools 
for  orphans  were  taken. 

The  depreciation  of  the  currency,  the  breakdown 
of  transportation,  and  the  lack  of  any  idea  of  a  good 
system  of  taxation  make  the  problems  of  school 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  47 

control  peculiarly  difficult.  It  is  very  difficult  to 
effect  widespread  improvement  without  control  of 
the  schools.  It  is  difficult  to  secure  control  of  the 
schools  without  substantial  financial  support.  It  is 
difficult  to  give  substantial  financial  support  when 
currency  is  depreciated,  when  prices  are  higher  than 
the  depreciation  of  the  currency  would  warrant, 
when  there  is  no  equable  system  of  collecting  funds. 
This  means  that  local  support  will  be  most  important 
and  that  it  will  not  be  easy  to  maintain  effective 
central  control. 


IV.  THE  PRIMARY  SCHOOL 

ACCORDING  to  the  latest  census,  January,  1915, 
there  were  6492  Primary  Schools  in  Siberia,  5800 
having  but  one  teacher.  This  represented  an 
increase  of  approximately  300  per  cent,  in  the  four 
years  previous.  Enrolled  in  these  schools  were 
352,505  children,  only  39  per  cent,  of  the  children 
between  the  ages  of  8  and  n  inclusive  (Siberian 
School  age).  There  were  9328  teachers. 

The  Village  Primary  School.— The  rural  school 
of  Russia  is  the  village  school.  Peasants  live  in 
little  villages,  going  out  into  the  country  to  work 
the  land.  It  was  difficult  for  the  writer  to  see  many 
village  schools.  One  train  each  way  a  day  on  the 
railroad,  with  thoroughly  disorganized  time  sched- 
ules, made  it  almost  impossible  to  make  short  jour- 
neys in  that  way.  A  drive  in  a  droshsky  over  the 
snow  is  long  and  cold.  In  consequence  only  five 
village  schools  were  visited,  three  in  Taiga 
(a  junction  point),  one  in  Manchuria  Station, 
and  one  in  a  village  several  miles  from  Irkutsk 
up  the  Angara  River. 

When  the  village  school  has  its  own  building  it  is 

48 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  49 

comparatively  clean  and  well  kept.  It  is  common 
for  the  teacher  to  have  a  room  or  two  in  the  same 
building.  When  there  is  no  school  building  (35  out 
of  159  in  Irkutsk  County  not  having  one  of 
their  own),  conditions  of  sanitation  and  cleanliness 
are  very  bad. 

There  are  usually  three  divisions  in  the  class- 
room, each  representing  a  year  of  work.  There  is 
one  bank  of  seats  for  each  class. 

Elimination  is  high.  In  one  school  visited  there 
were  22  in  the  first  class,  16  in  the  second,  and  only 
6  in  the  third.  Teachers  say  that  since  the  war  it 
has  been  difficult  to  keep  village  children  in  school. 
As  soon  as  a  boy  reaches  the  age  of  ten  or  eleven 
he  can  drive  a  horse,  and  at  that  time  his  father 
withdraws  him  from  school.  Similar  elimination 
conditions  were  found  in  the  other  schools. 

In  the  first  grade,  the  pupils  are  taught  reading 
and  writing,  verses,  composition  of  sentences  and  the 
fundamental  operations  of  arithmetic  up  to  one  hun- 
dred. In  the  second  grade  the  fundamental  opera- 
tions of  arithmetic  are  continued,  the  use  of  the 
abacus  is  taught,  parts  of  speech  and  sentences,  and 
in  the  readers  the  pupils  learn  simple  facts  of  nature. 
In  the  third  grade,  parts  of  speech  are  continued, 
simple  Russian  Grammar  is  taught  and  the  program 


50  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

of  studies  includes  square  and  cube  numbers  in  arith- 
metic and  sometimes  fractions,  and  geography  and 
history  in  the  readers.  The  better  schools  some- 
times teach  singing  and  simple  handwork  (clay  or 
basketry)  and  occasionally  religion. 

In  all  the  village  Primary  Schools  visited  there 
was  a  good  deal  of  objective  equipment,  mostly  of 
German  origin.  There  were  maps,  charts,  a  globe, 
a  large  abacus  and  a  wall  chart  of  the  multiplication 
tables.  In  all  schools  visited  there  was  a  lack  of 
pencils,  pens,  ink,  paper,  chalk,  and  only  old  and  tat- 
tered books  were  seen.  One  school,  in  Taiga,  had 
very  few  books  and  no  paper,  pens,  pencils  or  chalk. 

In  one  of  the  schools,  the  writer  saw  a  girl  in  the 
first  grade  who  seemed  to  be  doing  exceptionally 
good  work.  She  was  alert,  interested,  accurate. 
He  asked  her  how  old  she  was.  She  replied, 
"  Eleven/'  "  Why  is  it  that  you  are  eleven  years 
old  and  only  in  the  first  grade?  "  "  My  family  only 
moved  to  this  village  this  year,  and  in  the  village 
where  we  used  to  live,  there  was  no  school/' 

These  village  primary  schools  provide  meagre 
training  at  best.  They  are  the  only  educational 
institutions  open  to  the  great  mass  of  the  people  in 
a  country  twice  the  size  of  the  United  States.  There 
is  a  great  need  of  teachers,  and  all  sorts  of  equipment, 


THE    PRIMARY    SCHOOL 

A.  Primary  School,  Tomsk.     B.  City  School.    C.  Pupils.      D.  Teacher.     E.  Class  Room 
Note  Ikon  in  Corner 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 


books,  charts,  paper,  pens,  ink,  pencils,  slates,  chalk 
and  even  candles.  In  a  country  where  during 
the  winter  months  the  sun  rises  after  nine  and  sets 
before  three,  it  is  unfortunate  that  they  should 
be  without  light. 

The  City  Primary  School. — The  writer  visited 
six  Primary  Schools  in  Vladivostok,  two  in  Nicholsk, 
one  in  Manchuria  Station,  eight  in  Irkutsk,  and  five 
in  Tomsk.  These  schools  give  a  three-year  program 
for  children  who  enter  normally  at  the  age  of  eight. 
As  in  American  schools  there  are  variations  in  age, 
and  considerable  elimination.  Two  age-grade  tables 
for  a  Boys'  Primary  School  and  a  Girls'  Primary 
School  in  Tomsk  follow : 

Age  Grade  Table,  Boys'  Primary  School,  Tomsk 


Age  

7 

8 

9 

10 

II 

12 

13 

Total  en- 

rollment 

Grade  i 

8 

17 

I 

I 

27 

Grade  2 

I 

13 

IO 

2 

26 

Grade  3  

IO 

6 

II 

I 

28 

Age  Grade  Table,  Girls'  Primary  School,  Tomsk 


Aee 

7 

8 

9 

IO 

ii 

12 

13 

Total  en- 

rollment 

Grade  i    

5 

36 

4 

I 

46 

Grade  2  

6 

9 

7 

5 

5 

32 

Grade  3  

I 

i 

8 

8 

4 

4 

26 

52  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

A  complete  program  of  the  Boys'  Section  of  one 
of  the  largest  primary  schools  in  Irkutsk  is  added. 
It  is  typical  of  the  schools  visited  by  the  writer. 
While  there  are  variations  in  the  order  of  lessons 
and  in  the  time  of  classes,  the  features  of  this  pro- 
gram held  good  for  all  the  primary  schools  seen. 
Reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  grammar,  penmanship 
and  spelling  are  the  fundamentals.  History,  and 
science,  as  well  as  literature,  come  in  connection 
with  the  reading.  There  is  a  science  reader  and  a 
geography  reader,  centering  primarily  upon  Russia. 
One  page  out  of  400  in  a  geography  reader  was 
devoted  to  the  United  States. 

Variations  in  this  program  are  the  following: 
Some  schools  teach  religion,  calling  in  a  priest  twice 
or  thrice  a  week.  Some  schools  teach  a  little  Prac- 
tical Arts — clay  work,  basketry  or  sewing.  The 
writer  saw  no  organized  effort  to  teach  either  civics 
or  hygiene. 

The  equipment  in  the  City  Primary  Schools  must 
have  been  unusually  good  before  the  revolution. 
There  are  many  charts  "  made  in  Germany/'  maps 
"  made  in  Germany,"  globes  "  made  in  Germany," 
etc.  Text-books  are  worn  and  in  bad  shape;  while 
supplies  like  chalk,  erasers,  pens,  ink,  and  paper  are 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 


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54  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

at  a  premium,  if  indeed  they  are  obtainable  at  all. 
All  sorts  of  old  paper  are  used  in  the  schools. 

It  is  hard  for  a  foreigner  who  could  only  under- 
stand a  little  of  the  language  to  make  an  accurate 
estimate  of  the  methods  of  teaching.  In  arithmetic 
the  teacher  has  a  hand-book  with  rules  and  explana- 
tions; the  pupils  only  have  a  list  of  problems.  The 
work  is  formal,  the  children  apparently  memo- 
rize, and  ground  is  covered  rapidly.  Children  just 
beginning  the  second  year  of  arithmetic  were  solving 
this  problem:  "  The  pay-roll  of  a  factory  is  1898 
roubles  a  week.  Altogether  the  men  receive  six 
times  as  much  money  as!  the  women,  men  receiving 
21  roubles  a  week,  women  18  roubles  a  week.  How 
many  men  and  women  were  employed?  "  In  read- 
ing, the  child  stands  up  and  mumbles  a,  few  words, 
as  is  all  too  often  seen  in  the  American  schools. 
There  was  some  excellent  handwork  in  certain 
schools,  and  fine  correlation  between  the  various 
subjects.  Reading  and  handwork  particularly  are 
never  taught  as  separate  subjects.  They  are  tied  up 
jvith  other  subjects  of  instruction. 

Because  of  the  severity  of  the  weather,  the  chil- 
dren do  not  go  out  of  doors  to  play.  They  remain 
in  school  and  play  in  the  halls.  At  the  long  recess, 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  55 

tea  and  bread  with  bologna  and  caviar  are  served  to 
the  children,  this  being  generally  managed  by  a 
committee  of  the  parents.  Instead  of  the  sanitary 
drinking  fountain,  we  see  a  huge  brass  samovar  and 
row  upon  row  of  little  cups  or  glasses. 

The  buildings  are  well  built,  with  the  thick  log 
walls  and  double  windows,  characteristic  of  Russian 
houses.  Heating  is  by  means  of  tall  built-in  tile 
stoves,  which  are  fired  only  early  in  the  morning, 
remaining  hot  all  t(he  day.  There  is,  of  course,  no 
ventilation.  Floors  are  invariably  bad,  not  because 
of  poor  material  or  construction,  but  apparently 
due  to  lack  of  care.  Toilet  rooms,  sanitation  and 
cleanliness,  with  very  few  exceptions,  may  only 
be  compared  to  that  of  some  railway  stations  in 
the  United  States. 

Although  a  school  doctor  is  mentioned  in  the 
laws,  the  writer  saw  no  such  official  at  work.  There 
is  no  school  nurse,  no  instruction  in  hygiene,  no 
medical  inspection.  A  Zemstvo  doctor  in  Irkutsk 
told  the  writer  that  when  diphtheria  or  scarlet  fever 
started  it  was  pitiable  to  behold.  There  is  no  medi- 
cine. Supplies  are  at  a  premium.  Infant  mortality^/ 
is  seven  in  ten. 

The  Primary  School  in  Siberia  is  aptly  termed  a 
"blind  alley"  (Tupik). 


56  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

The  teachers  are  supposed  to  be  graduates  of  the 
Teachers'  Seminaries  supported  by  the  state,  or  of 
special  teacher  training  classes  in  the  gymnasiums. 
It  is  hard  to  find  out  whether  these  preparation 
standards  are  lived  up  to  or  not.  The  depreciation  of 
the  rouble  has  made  it  very  difficult  for  them  to  live. 
The  teachers  receive  220  roubles  a  month,  with  a 
bonus  of  60  roubles  on  account  of  the  high  cost  of 
living  and  an  additional  allowance  of  40  roubles 
for  rent.  A  class  "  manager  "  receives  50  roubles 
additional.  There  are  premiums  for  five  and  ten 
years  of  service.  Altogether  some  experienced 
teachers  receive  as  much  as  400  roubles  a  month. 
Teachers  are  paid  twelve  months  in  the  year.  One 
can  purchase  4800  roubles  at  present  for  $500. 

The  most  alert  and  forward  looking  group  of 
teachers  in  Siberia  are  these  teachers  in  the  Primary 
Schools.  They  work  hard.  They  are  self-sacrific- 
ing. In  a  true  sense  they  are  heroes.  They  are 
staying  by  their  posts  in  times  which  are  exceedingly 
trying,  and  they  are  doing  much  good. 


V.  THE  HIGHER  PRIMARY  SCHOOL 

THE  writer  visited  Higher  Primary  Schools  in 
Vladivostok,  Nicholsk,  Irkutsk  and  Tomsk.  The 
number  of  these  schools  is  small,  possibly  one  to 
every  seven  primary  schools  in  the  cities,  and  one 
to  every  thirty  primary  schools  in  the  villages,  Four 
years  of  work  are  offered  to  pupils  10  to  13  years 
of  age  who  have  either  finished  the  Primary  School 
or  successfully  taken  corresponding  examinations. 
These  schools  may  be  opened  by  various  govern- 
mental organizations,  societies  or  private  individuals. 
In  general,  the  Zemstvo  Higher  Primary  Schools 
are  most  numerous. 

An  age-grade  table  could  not  be  secured,  but 
individual  pupils  varying  in  age  from  10  to  18 
were  foundv 

The  time  table  for  the  Secondary  Higher  Pri- 
mary School  in  Irkutsk  follows : 

The  subjects  include  the  following: 

Religion. — Old  and  New  Testament  history, 
worship,  prayers,  etc.  History  of  the  Greek  Church 
and  history  of  the  Russian  Church. 

Mathematics. — Arithmetic — fractions,  decimals, 
abacus;  plane  geometry;  algebra  to  quadratics. 

5  57 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 


History. — World  History — ancient,  medieval, 
modern.  Russian  history. 

Geography. — Physical  geography,  mathematical 
geography,  geography  of  foreign  countries.  Geog- 
raphy of  Russia. 

Natural  Science. — Botany,  zoology,  anatomy, 
physiology,  mineralogy,  chemistry. 

Physics. — Liquids,  gases,  light,  sound  and  elec- 
tricity. 

Russian. — Grammar,  theory  of  literature,  com- 
position, poetry,  novels,  plays,  short  stories.  His- 
tory of  Russian  literature.  Elementary  functions 
of  the  mind,  induction,  deduction,  etc. 


Subject 

Class 
I 

Class 
II 

Class 
III 

Class 
IV 

Total 

Russian                         

s; 

k 

5 

5 

2O 

Natural  Science  

3—2 

3 

3 

2 

II-IO 

History  

2 

2 

2 

3 

9 

Arithmetic 

1-4 

4. 

2 

2 

11-12 

Drawing                         

2 

2 

2 

2 

8 

Geography          

2 

2 

2 

2 

8 

Singing  

2 

2 

4 

Penmanship 

I 

I 

2 

Geometry               

2 

3 

3 

8 

Algebra             

2 

2 

4 

Physics 

3 

4 

7 

Mechanical  drawing           .  . 

2 

2 

4 

Bookkeeping         

2 

2 

Total  

2O 

23 

26 

29 

SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  59 

The  physical  equipment  of  these  schools  is  much 
like  that  of  the  elementary  schools,  but  rather  more 
elaborate.  The  buildings  are  larger.  There  is  more 
museum  material.  The  science  laboratories  are  well 
equipped  for  the  teacher.  Pupils  do  not  themselves 
handle  laboratory  material,  it  being  merely  for  the 
purpose  of  illustration. 

A  graduate  of  this  school  may  enter  the  fifth 
class  of  the  gymnasium  if  he  can  make  up  the  lan- 
guage work.  It  is  said  that  this  transition  is  rarely 
made.  As  is  said  in  the  prospectus,  the  aim  of  the 
school  is  to  complete  the  Primary  Education.  There 
is  no  special  end  for  the  school.  Elimination  is 
heavy,  and  it  is  nearly  as  much  of  a  "  blind  alley  " 
as  the  Primary  School. 

Teachers  in  these  schools  must  pass  examinations 
in  religion,  Russian  language,  in  literature  and 
methods  of  teaching  the  subject,  arithmetic  and 
methods  of  teaching  the  subject,  algebra,  geometry, 
physics,  history  and  geography.  If  the  prospective 
teacher  has  graduated  from  the  Teachers'  Seminary, 
he  does  not  need  to  take  this  examination. 

In  certain  Higher  Primary  Schools  there  is 
added  a  year  or  two  of  special  Normal  Training. 
This  class  studies  psychology,  logic,  didactics,  school 


60  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

management,  history  of  European  and  Russian  edu- 
cation, physical  training,  and  the  special  methods 
of  teaching  each  of  the  subjects.  Such  students  also 
gain  school  experience  under  the  direction  of  a 
teacher  of  a  class  in  an  adjacent  Primary  School. 


VI.  THE    COMBINATION    PRIMARY    AND 
HIGHER  PRIMARY  SCHOOL 

THE  Russian  realizes  that  one  of  the  greatest 
defects  in  his  system  of  schools  is  the  lack  of  articu- 
lation between  primary  and  secondary  education. 
There  can  be  no  democracy  when  one  great  group 
of  the  people  is  compelled  to  enter  a  course  of  study 
which  from  its  very  nature  will  prevent  attendance 
at  higher  institutions  and  restrict  the  individual  to 
the  more  humble  walks  of  life,  regardless  of  his  abil- 
ity. Many  of  the  Russian  teachers  are  hoping  that 
a  new  plan  of  organization  will  be  adopted  consist- 
ing of  a  primary  school  of  four  years,  a  middle 
school  of  four  years,  and  a  high  school  of  three, 
giving  admission  to  the  university.  The  Irkutsk 
Society  of  Enlightenment  has  started  a  four-year 
school,  which  is  designed  to  give  the  first  years  of 
the  work  of  this  new  organization.  At  present,  the 
children  who  graduate  from  this  school  are  admitted 
to  the  secondary  schools  without  penalty. 

A  detailed  program  of  this  school  follows: 

61 


62  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

Program  of  the  Primary  School  of  the  Irkutsk  Society 

"Enlightenment." 
RELIGION— 

ist   Div. — Some  twenty  prayers. 
2nd  Div. — Ten  Commandments.     Symbols  of  Faith.     Brief 

History  of  the  Old  Testament. 
3d  Div. — History  of  the  New  Testament. 
4th  Div. — Catechism  and  doctrine  of  divine  service. 

RUSSIAN  LANGUAGE— 

*  i.  Teaching  to  read  and  write  by  sound  method.  During  the 
entire  year  attention  is  paid  to  the  development  of  oral 
speech.  Stories  about  what  has  been  seen,  read  and 

heard,  tales  from  pictures,  original  stories  from  their 
own  lives,  learning  of  poems  and  fables.  Illustrations 
of  other  work  by  clay-work,  drawing  and  carving. 

Writing,  copying  from  books,  dictation,  written  answers  to 
questions. 

Grammar — Sounds   and   letters,   vowels   and   consonants, 
syllables. 

Transmutation  of  letters,  use  of  hard  and  soft  sign,  and 
terminal  letters,  the  use  of  a,  y,  and  i,  after  hissing 
letters,  the  use  of  the  capital  after  the  periad. 
2.  Reading  of  mixed  selections,  and  re-telling  of  stories 
read.  Exercises  in  expressive  reading.  Brief  work  in 
composition.  Memorization  of  poems  and  fables.  Illus- 
tration of  stories  read  by  drawing,  clay-work,  and 
carving. 

Writing — A  continuation  of  the  work  of  the  first  division. 

Grammar — Doubtful  vowels  and  consonants,  accent,  root, 

*  The  numbers  refer  to  the  division  or  class. 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  63 

suffix  and  termination  of  words,  root  words  with  the 
letter  B,  orthography,  subject,  predicate,  object,  quality 
and  action,  punctuation. 

3.  Reading  of  complete  works  of  literature  dealing  with  the 

life  of  people  in  Russia  and  in  foreign  countries.  Re- 
telling of  these  stories  in  various  ways,  changing  first 
person  into  third,  etc.,  and  illustration  by  drawing. 

Writing — Composition. 

Grammar — Acquaintance  with  variable  parts  of  speech, 
substantive,  adjective,  numeral  noun,  verb,  pronoun, 
simple  and  compound  sentences,  punctuation. 

4.  Reading  of  complete  works  of  literature,  and  retelling. 
Writing — More  elaborate  work  in  composition  and  char- 
acter study. 

Grammar — Immutable  parts  of  speech,  their  orthography, 
compound  sentences,  abbreviations  and  punctuation. 

ARITHMETIC— 

1.  Notation  of  number.     Representations  of  number.     The 

four  operations  in  the  limits  of  twenty.  Counting  by 
tens  up  to  one  hundred.  Four  operations  with  tens.  Ac- 
quaintance with  the  simplest  fractions  (}4,  %,  ^),  ac- 
quaintance with  measures  (arshin,  sajen,  foot,  poud, 
rouble,  and  kopeck).  Counting  to  one  thousand.  Illus- 
tration by  drawing.  Memorized. 

2.  Fundamental  operations  up  to  one  hundred.    Counting  to 

100,000.  Four?  operations  with  numbers  of  every  size. 
Arithmetical  terms.  Fractions  (1/3,  1/5,  1/6)  and 
measures.  Illustration  by  drawing. 


64  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

3.  Linear  measures,  weights,  measures  of  capacity — dry  and 

liquid,  paper,  time  and  money.  Compound  and  complex 
numbers,  and  four  operations  with  them. 

4.  Time,  cubic  and  square  measures.    Solution  of  examples. 

Finding  the  part  of  the  whole  and  the  whole  by  the  part. 
Highest  common  factor  and  lowest  common  multiple. 
The  Metric  System. 

HISTORY— 

3.  Prehistoric  period  in   Russia  and  Europe.     Pictures  of 

early  life ;  dwellings  in  trees  and  caves.  Demonstration 
of  the  rough  instruments  of  the  stone  age.  Making  fire. 
Building  on  piles.  Making  of  weapons  and  utensils. 
Bronze  and  iron  ages.  Metals.  Taming  of  animals. 
Early  sign  languages.  Beginnings  of  settlement  and 
agriculture.  Life  in  wilds  at  present. 

Russian  History — Life  of  the  Eastern  Slavs,  their  occu- 
pation and  faith.  Norwegian  princes  and  their  soldiers, 
trade,  campaigns  and  courts.  Invasions  of  nomads. 
Christianity.  Saint  Vladimir.  Monasteries  and  schools. 
Tartar  yoke. 

Moscow  Period — Tsar  Boyars,  their  life;  landlords  and 
peasants. 

4.  Peter's  Russia — Education  of  Peter,  his  journey  to  foreign 

countries;  Petersburg  and  the  Baltic  Sea;  nobility,  its 
formation  and  service. 

Russia  After  Peter — Court  life  at  the  time  of  Catherine 
II ;  life  of  landlords  and  peasants.  War.  Alexander  II, 
liberation  of  the  peasants.  General  military  service. 
Court.  Schools. 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  65 

GEOMETRY— 

1.  The  notion  of  the  square,  equilateral  triangle  and  rhombus 

through   concrete  work  in  drawing,  construction  and 
paper  folding. 

2.  Objective  concrete  work  on  right  triangles,  squares  and 

parallelograms  by  construction  and  paper  folding. 

3.  Notion  of  circle,  center,  diameter,  radius,  chord,  hexagon, 

360  degrees  and  protractor. 

4.  Practical  work  in  mensuration,  square  and  cube  figures. 

Use  of  surveyor's  square  and  chain. 

NATURAL  SCIENCE— 

i.  Life  of  Men:  Home — How  men  made  their  homes  in 
former  times,  on  trees,  in  caves,  on  piles,  on  water,  and 
on  land.  Movable  and  permanent  homes.  How  men  are 
constructing  their  homes  now  in  north,  in  south,  in  tem- 
perate countries.  Materials  with  which  homes  are  made, 
snow,  birch  bark,  skin,  cane,  wood,  stone  and  brick. 

— Utensils  and  Furniture — Furniture,  utensils,  plates 
and  dishes  of  wild  peoples,  of  civilized  ones.  Industries, 
pottery,  porcelain,  glass,  carpentry,  iron  mining,  and 
preparation  of  iron. 

— Food — Wild  and  cultivated  fruits,  vegetables  and 
grains.  Agriculture,  horticulture  and  gardening.  Ani- 
mal food,  hunting,  cattle  breeding.  Industries,  grain 
growing,  sugar,  wine,  tea,  coffee,  cocoa,  and  spices. 

— Clothes,  ornaments  of  primitive  races,  teeth  and 
bones  of  animals,  feathers,  tattooing.  Clothes  of  skin, 


66  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

wool,  silk,  fibres  of  plants.     Industries,  skin,  fur,  silk, 
cotton,  flax  and  hemp. 

— Heating — Fire,  its  importance,  and  getting.  Ma- 
terials, fires  of  dung,  straw,  wood,  peat,  coal,  gasoline 
and  naphtha. 

— Light — Vegetable  oil,  grease,  candles  made  of 
grease,  stearine,  wax,  paraffine.  Lamps,  kerosene,  gas 
and  electric.  Industries,  matches  and  agriculture. 

— Means  of  transportation — Waterways,  rafts,  boats, 
ships.  Land  means,  wagons  and  sleighs.  Steam,  elec- 
tricity and  air. 

— Means  of  Communication — Trade,  war,  speech,  oral 
and  written.  Methods  of  writing,  printing,  pens,  paper, 
ink,  chalk.  Postal  system,  telegraph  and  telephone. 

— Social  Life  of  the  people — Village,  city,  State. 

— Recreation — Theatres,  moving  pictures,  games, 
dances. 

— Education — Various  types  of  schools. 

— Excursions — Museum,  sawmill,  brick  factory, 
quarry,  pottery,  glass  works,  school,  agricultural  imple- 
ment warehouse,  mill,  bakery,  sausage  shop,  farm,  tan- 
nery, rope  factory,  production  of  clothes,  shoes,  elec- 
tricity. Excursion  to  the  Angara  River  and  to  Lake 
Baikal.  Gold  mine,  printing  office. 

— Practical  Work — Clay  work,  drawing  and  construc- 
tion of  various  models   from  clay,  cardboard,  match- 
boxes, and  wood.    Gardening.  , 
2.  Life  of  Animals — 

— Homes — Various  types  of  animal  homes,  masons, 
weavers,  potters.  Use  of  leaves,  clay,  paper,  cotton 
and  wax. 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  67 

— Appearance,  protection  against  climatic  conditions. 
Protective!  coloration. 

— Food — Vegetable  and  animal.     Care  of  food  sup- 
plies.    Building  of  granaries. 

— Care  of  offspring  and  education. 

— Social    life.    Permanent    societies,    herds,    flocks, 
swarms.    Temporary  societies.  , 

— Recreation. 

— Mind  and  moral  feelings. 

— Excursions  to  various  places  to  watch  animals. 

— Practical  work.    Drawing.    Models. 
3.  Life  of  the  Earth- 
Formation    of    the    earth,    its    surface    and    interior 

structure. 
The  four  seasons,  globe,  compass,  sun,  division  of  earth 

according  to  climatic  belts. 
Air.    Atmosphere,  barometer,  composition  of  the  air, 

wind,  necessity  of  air  for  breathing  and  burning. 
Water.      Nature    of    water,    pressure,    expansion,    fog 

clouds,  rain,  reasons  for  rain  falling,  formation  of 

rivers  and  lakes,  snow  and  ice,  nature  of  ice. 
Work  of  water.    Erosion  by  water. 
Rivers  of  Russia  and  their  effect  on  the  country. 
Constructive   work   of   water.    Deltas,   flooded  plains, 

water-laid  rock.    Oceans  and  seas. 
Work  of  the  seas. 

Lakes  of  Russia.    Fresh  and  salt  water  lakes.    Reasons. 
Glaciers.    Present  glaciers  in  the  Caucasus.    Evidences 

of  glacial  work  in  lake  region  and  Central  Russia. 
Volcanic     phenomena.    Earthquakes     and     volcanoes. 


68  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

Origin  of  mountains.     Interior  heat  of  earth. 
Map  of  Russia. 

Geography  of  Russia.  Climate,  plants,  animals,  popu- 
lation, occupations,  life.  Tundra  belt.  Fir  forest 
belt.  Black  earth  belt.  Central  Russia.  Steppes 
and  Crimea. 

Excursions — Quarry,  Baikal,  gold,  mine,  Kimi  excava- 
tions, observatory,  museum,  iron  foundry. 
Practical  work,  a  good  deal  of  experimentation  and 

collection. 

4.  Further  Study  of  Geography  of  Russia. 
Ural  Mountains. 
Finland,  Baltic  Region,  the  West.    Asiatic  Russia,  the 

Caucasus,  and  Siberia. 

— The  Earth.  Further  work  on  the  terrestrial  globe  and 
its  movement.  The  sun  as  a  source  of  warmth  and  light. 
Physics  of  light,  heat  and  electricity.  Course  of  rays  of 
light  from  mirrors.  Reflection  of  heat  from  white  and 
smooth  surfaces  and  absorption  by  black  and  rough.  Ef- 
fect on  rays  of  light  by  concave  and  cdnvex  lenses.  Pho- 
tography. Magnifying  glass.  Rainbow.  Making  of  elec- 
tricity by  friction.  Electrical  generator.  Conductors  and 
non-conductors.  Thunder  and  lightning.  Lightning  rods. 
Moon,  moonlight,  phases  of  the  moon.  Eclipse  of  the 
moon  and  sun.  Stars.  Planets,  fixed  stars,  constellations, 
comets,  shooting  stars. 

— Plants.  The  cell,  its  structure,  development  of  the 
seed  of  monocotyledonous  and  dicotyledonous  plants, 
nourishing'  the  germ ;  importance  of  light,  air  and  warmth 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  69 

to  the  germ.  Importance  of  the  root  for  the  life  of  the 
plant.  The  leaf,  breathing.  Structure  and  purpose  of  the 
stalk.  Vessels.  Flowers,  study  of  poppy  and  tobacco. 
Spore  plants.  Movement  of  plants.  Essential  similarity 
of  plants  and  animals. 

— Modifications  of  animals  and  plants  by  nature.  De- 
velopment of  strains  of  animals  and  plants  by  selection 
and  breeding. 

— Anatomy.  Human  body  and  its  functions.  Digestive 
apparatus  and  digestion.  Circulation  of  blood.  Breathing. 
Breathing  compared  with  burning.  Skeleton,  muscles  and 
system  of  nerves.  Senses,  touch,  smell,  taste,  sight,  hearing. 

Physics  of  hearing.  Vibration,  transmission  of  sound 
through  the  air,  through  solid  and  liquid.  Rapidity  of 
sound.  Echo. 

Need  for  ventilation  and  cleanliness. 

— Excursions.  Museum*  electric  station.  Observatory. 
Farms. 

— Practical  work.  Cultivation  (of  plantjs,  in  room, 
in  garden,  gathering  of  plants.  Experiments  in  physics 
and  physiology. 

DRAWING— 

1.  Illustrative  drawing,  drawing  of  flat  objects  from  mem- 

ory, such  as  flag,  envelope,  kite,  etc.  Small  amount  of 
color  work. 

2.  Illustrative   and   creative    drawing.     Principles   of   per- 

spective. Light  and  shade.  Drawing  of  simple  objects 
in  three  dimensions,  such  as  a  matchbox,  book,  etc. 
Practice  with  both  right  and  left  hand. 


70  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

3.  Illustrative  drawing.     Drawing  from  nature  with  colors 

and  pencil,   colored   leaves,   branches,   feathers,   fruits 
and  vegetables. 

4.  Drawing  butterflies,   dragon-flies,   flowers,   stuffed  birds 

and  a  few  live  aimals,  such  as  cats  and  dogs. 

HANDWORK— 

i  and  2.  PAPER. 

1.  Straight  line.    Cutting  paper*  with  knife. 

2.  Curved  line.  Cutting  paper  with  scissors. 

3.  Parallel,  inclined  and  perpendicular  lines. 

4.  Acute,  right  and  obtuse  angles.    Designs. 

5.  Rectangle. 

6.  Square. 

7.  Measurements.     Metric    system    and    application    to 
problems    of   design. 

8.  Use  of  diagonals  and  composition  of   squares,  rec- 
tangles and  their  parts  to  furnish  designs. 

9.  Right  angle,  equilateral  and  isosceles  triangles. 

10.  Weaving  paper.     Contrasts  of  color 

11.  Circle. 

12.  Regular  polygons. 

13.  Weaving  round  figures  in  paper. 

14.  Original  combinations  of  form  and  color. 

1 5.  Paper  folding. 

16.  Ovals  and  spirals. 

3.  PASTEBOARD. 

i.  Square  decimeter.     Square  measurements.     Cutting 
pasteboard  with  knife.    How  to  glue  pasteboard. 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  71 

2.  Pasting  on  postcards. 

3.  How  to  paste  pictures  in  album. 

4.  Pasting  on  corners  and  back  of  calico  on  memo- 
randum book. 

5.  Making  an  exercise  book. 

6.  Making  a  checkerboard. 

7.  Making  a  slate.    A  calendar. 

8.  Making     boxes     for     stones     of     a     mineralogical 
collection. 

9.  Box  with  cover. 

4.  PASTEBOARD. 

1.  Making  a  cubic  decimeter. 

2.  Making  a  lantern. 

3.  Pen  case  and  inside  of  a  screen. 

4.  Making  a  pyramid. 

5.  Square  box  with  inclining  walls,  a  truncated  pyramid. 

6.  A  stand  for  the  collection  of  postcards. 

7.  A  box  for  visiting  cards. 

8.  A  portfolio  with  several  divisions. 

9.  Napkin  ring. 

10.  Pin  case. 

11.  Lamp  shade. 

3.  WOOD. 

1.  Handle. 

2.  Small  square. 

3.  Rule. 

4.  Arshin,  meter,  foot. 

5.  Bevel. 

6.  Knife. 


72  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

7.  Small  shovel. 

8.  Protractor. 

9.  Level. 

10.  Sculptor's  trowel. 

11.  Clipping  board. 

12.  Pistol. 

4.  WOOD. 

1.  Protractor  triangle. 

2.  Support. 

3.  Anvil. 

4.  Rotator. 

5.  Mill. 

6.  Pen-case. 

7.  Bird-house. 

8.  Cart. 

9.  Cane. 

10.  Shelves. 

11.  Boxes  for  mineralogical  collections. 

12.  Press  for  herbarium. 


VII.  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

THE  writer  visited  secondary  schools  in  Vladi- 
vostok, Nicholsk,  Irkutsk  and  Tomsk,  eleven  schools 
in  all.  In  Siberia,  secondary  education  runs  parallel 
to  elementary  or  primary  education.  The  course  is 
usually  eight  years  in  length,  not  including  two  or 
more  preparatory  years.  Many  of  the  children  are 
given  this  preparatory  work  at  home,  entering  school 
from  the  age  of  nine  to  eleven.  A  few  enter  at  the 
age  of  eight  but  only  rarely. 

There  are  five  distinct  types  of  secondary  schools : 

Boys'  Gymnasium,  Irkutsk 


Prep. 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

Total 

Religion  ... 

4 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

16 

Russian  

6 

K 

e: 

4. 

A 

1 

e: 

Latin  

s 

s 

C 

c 

c 

10 

Philosophy-logic  

2 

I 

-i 

Jurisprudence  

2 

2 

Mathematics  

A 

A 

4. 

4. 

ft 

-z 

-2-2 

Physics  .  .  . 

•2 

IO 

History  

2 

1 

2 

-I 

2 

'i 

27 

Geography.  • 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

I 

I 

I 

T-2 

German  

4 

3 

3 

l 

1 

2 

a 

2 

21 

French  

B 

-i 

•2 

•7 

-2 

•2 

2/1 

Natural  science  

2 

2 

2 

6 

Drawing  

2 

2 

I 

< 

Penmanship  

? 

2 

Singing  

I 

I 

I 

Gymnastics  

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

12 

Total  

IO 

?8 

11 

11 

10 

2Q 

10 

2Q 

IO 

73 


74 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 


the  Boys'  Gymnasium,  the  Girls*  Gymnasium,  the 
Real  School,  the  Commercial  School,  and  the  Poly- 
technic School.  Time-tables  for  representative 
schools  of  each  type  follow: 

Second  Girls'  Gymnasium,  Irkutsk 


I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

Total 

Religion            

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

I 

IS 

Russian  

I 

5 

5 

4. 

3 

3 

7 

7 

11 

History             .            .... 

2 

2 

? 

"2 

16 

Geography  

7 

2 

2 

2 

2 

II 

Knowledge  about  Siberia. 

2 

2 

Natural  science   

2 

2 

2 

2 

•I 

II 

Cosmography  

2 

2 

Physics  

? 

3 

3 

2 

IO 

Mathematics 

6 

•74. 

Logic  —  Psychology  

2 

I 

3 

Civics  

? 

I 

3 

Hygiene  

2 

2 

French  

3 

3 

7 

7 

7 

a 

2 

20 

German  

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

20 

Latin  

6 

6 

Physical  exercise  

2 

? 

2 

2 

2 

2 

12 

Drawing                    

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

12 

Singing  

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

7 

Fancy  work 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

12 

Penmanship  ,  

T 

I 

Total.. 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

28 

20 

24 

Note:     (i)   Lessons  in  physical  exercises  are  but  one-half 
hour  in  length.     (2)   Only  one  modern  language  is  required. 


SECONDARY    SCHOOLS 

A.  Real  School,  Nicholsk.     B.  and  C.   Girls'  Gymnasium,  Irkutsk.     D.  Physics  Laboratory, 
Real  School,  Nicholsk.     E.  School  Assembly  Hall,  Girls'  Gymnasium — Vladivostok 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 
Real  School,  Nicholsk 


75 


Pre. 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

Religion 

4 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Russian  

6 

5" 

4 

German  

tr 

4" 

4, 

4. 

1. 

-3 

7 

French  ™*  Tfyiplish     

B 

e: 

4 

7 

2 

2 

Geosraohv  • 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

History  

2 

2 

2 

-5 

7 

4 

Law  —  civics  

2 

Mathematics 

6 

/I 

6 

6 

6 

Physics  

7 

4 

-2 

Natural  science  

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

7 

2 

Drawing  

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Linear  design  . 

2 

I 

Penmanship.  

4" 

2 

Total.. 

22 

26 

28 

2Q 

^0 

^0 

10 

30 

Total 

14 
30 
26 
21 
12 

19 

2 

35 

10 

15 
14 

3 

2 


Commercial  School,  Irkutsk-Vladivostok 


Pre. 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

Religion  

4 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Russian  

6 

5 

5 

4. 

5 

4 

3 

7 

German  .   . 

K 

E 

7 

7 

7 

2 

French  or  Knglish  

s 

1 

4 

7 

7 

2 

Mathematics  

6 

4 

4 

4 

6 

6 

6 

Commercial  arithmetic 

2 

2 

Bookkeeping 

2 

7 

Natural  science  

2 

2 

2 

7 

2 

I 

Geography.  . 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Physics 

7 

7 

2 

Chemistry   

2 

2 

Technical    knowledge     of 
materials  

4 

Commercial  geography.. 

2 

History  .      .           

2 

3 

7 

7 

History  of  trade  

I 

Political  economy 

7 

Jurisprudence 

7 

Statistics  

I 

Total  

16 

T8 

75 

75 

?8 

3° 

30 

3° 

Total 

14 
29 

25 
22 

30 
4 

5 

12 

8 
8 
4 

4 

2 

II 

I 

3 
3 
I 


76 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

Polytechnic  School,  Tomsk 


Prep. 

Comm. 

Agric. 

Mining 

(1) 

lh) 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

7 

8 

7 

8 

Religion 

2 

6 

2 

6 

2 

5 

S 

2 
S 
5 

2 

5 

4 

2 

4 
3 

4 
3 

3 
2 

2 

4 
3 
3 
3 

2 

3 

2 
3 
3 

2 

3 

J 

2 

Russian  language  
German  language  

3 
4 
6 

3 

3 

3 

3 

English  language  

History          

2 

3 

3 

2 
? 

Geography    and    natural 
science     

3 

Zoology    

Laboratory  in  zoology. 

T 

Botany  

? 

Botany  laboratory   

T 

Mineralogy  

? 

Soils  

2 

Physics    with    laboratory 
work           .        .... 

3 

3 
? 

4 
? 

Chemistry  

2 

Chemistry  laboratory  .... 

? 

5 

Anatomy,  physiology  and 
hygiene  

2 

Mathematics: 
Arithmetic              .      .  . 

6 

6 

5 

5 

2 
2 
2 

Geometry      

2 

3 

2 
2 

2 
2 
? 

Algebra 

Trigonometry     

Analytical  geometry  .  .  . 

2 

2 

2 

Calculus                  .  .    . 

2 

2 

Commercial  arithmetic  . 
Descriptive  geometry 

T 

T 

2 

T 

T 

Drawing            

3 

2 

3 

2 

3 

7 

3 
? 

3 

2 

2 

Writing 

3 

I 

Physical  training     ...... 

2 
2 

2 
2 

2 
2 

2 

I 

2 

I 

2 

2 

Singing  

History  of  trade         

j 

2 

2 

Civil  and  business  law.  .  .  . 

2 

2 

2 
2 

Commercial  geography.  .  . 

Materials 

3 

3 

2 

Commercial     correspond- 
ence in: 
Russian    

I 

I 

English      

2 

Bookkeeping 

3 

2 

Civil  law 

2 

Geodesy    (surveying    and 
map-making) 

5 
I 

5 

I 

3 

I 

Laboratory  in  geodesy 

Agronomy 

3 

2 

3 
2 

Practical  work  in  agron- 

SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 


77 


Polytechnic  School,  Tomsk — Continued 


Prep. 

Comm. 

Agric. 

Mining 

(1) 

(h) 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

i 

8 

7 

8 

7 

8 

Agricultural  economics   .  . 

?, 

Forestry  and  forest  taxa- 

i 

2 

Land  laws 

3 

3 

I 

3 
3 

Improvement  of  rural  con- 
ditions 

2 
I 
?. 

4 

5 

5 

Mechanics  

Qualitative    analysis    and 
assaying  

6 

2 

Metallurgy 

2 
3 

Geology     

2 
4 

3 

Art  of  mining 

4 

Architecture  

Descriptive  geometry 

2 

Assaying 

I 

2 
2 

I 
2 

3 

37 

Mine  Surveying 

Electricity 

Mining  law  

First  aid 

Practical  mechanics 

Blow-pipe  

I 

37 

Total  .  . 

2T 

21 

20 

30 

30 

3S 

35 

34 

34 

36 

37 

38 

The  details  of  the  subjects  taught  in  the  various 
schools  are  given  in  the  following  notes  on  the  con- 
tent of  the  curriculum  of  each  subject.  The  work 
in  the  Boys'  Gymnasium  and  the  Polytechnic  School 
is  typical  of  the  others. 

DETAILED  DESCRIPTION   OF  PROGRAM   OF  STUDIES  OF  THE  BOYS' 

Religion-  GYMNASIUM. 

Preparatory  Classes — Memorizing  prayers  and  their  expla- 
nation. 

— simple    history    of    leading    facts    of    Old    and    New 
Testament. 


78  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

First  Class — History  of  judges  and  prophets. 

— history  of  New  Testament. 

Second  Class — Continuation  of  work  of  First  Class. 
Third  Class — Service  of  the  Christian  Orthodox  (Russian) 

Church. 
Fourth  and  Fifth  Class — Introduction  to  catechism. 

— faith,  hope  and  love. 
Sixth  Class — History  of  Christian  Orthodox  Church. 

Russian  Language,  Church  Slavonic,  and  Literature — 

Preparatory  Class — Reading  Russian  and  Church  Slavonic. 

— telling  of  stories. 

— grammatical  exercises  in  connection  with  reading. 

— memorizing  short  poems  and  fables. 

— exercises  in  writing. 
First  Class — Etymology,  except  derivation  of  words. 

— grammatical  analysis. 

— declension  and  conjugation. 

— explanation,  retelling,  reading  and  memorizing  poems 
with  practice"  in  expressive  reading. 

— dictation  and  written  relation  of  stories  read. 
Second  Class — Completion  of  etymology. 

— syntax. 

— practical  exercises. 

Third  Class — Syntax  of  compound  sentences  and  rules  of 
punctuation. 

— practical  exercises. 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  79 

Fourth     Class — Grammar     of     ancient     church     Slavonic 

language. 

— analysis  of  description  and  narration. 
— practical  exercises. 
Fifth  Class— Theory  of  literature. 

— practical  exercises. 

Sixth,  Seventh  and  Eighth  Classes — History  of  Russian  Lit- 
erature. 
— practical  exercises. 

Latin— 

First  Class — Grammar,  with  written  and  oral  exercises. 
Second  Class — First  Half  Year — Grammar,  5  lessons,  writ- 
ten exercises  2  lessons.    Second  half  year,  grammar  2 
lessons,  reading  of  fables  3  lessons,  written  exercises 
2  lessons. 

Third  Class — Grammar,  reading  of  Phaedrus  and  Nepos. 
Fourth  Class — Grammar,  reading  of  Caesar. 
Fifth  Class — Grammar,  reading  of  Caesar,  Sallust  and  Ovid. 
Sixth    Class — Grammar,   Cicero   and   about   800  verses   of 

Virgil. 

Seventh  Class — Oral  translation  from  Russian  into  Latin. 
— written  exercises. 
— reading  Livy  and  Virgil. 

Eighth  Class — Oral  translation  and  Britten  exercises. 
— reading  philosophical  and  rhetorical  works  of  Cicero. 
— selected  odes,  satires  and  epistles  of  Horace. 

Greek— 

Third  Class — Grammar. 

Fourth  Class — Grammar,  Composition,  Xenophon. 
Fifth  Class — Grammar,  Xenophon  and  Homer. 


8o  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

Sixth  Class — Syntax,  composition,  the  Odyssey,  Xenophon. 
Memorabilia  and  either  Isocrates,  Arian,  Lucian  or 
Plutarch. 

Seventh  and  Eighth  Classes — Oral  and  written  translation 
from  Russian  into  Greek  with  emphasis  on  the  most 
difficult  parts  of  syntax. 
— Plato,  Apology  or  Crito  and  the  Iliad. 
— Demosthenes. 
—Plato. 

— 'Euripides  or  Sophocles. 
Mathematics — 

Preparatory  Classes — Fundamental  operations  of  arithmetic. 
First  and  Second  Classes — Arithmetic. 
Third  Class — Arithmetic,  2  lessons. 

— algebra,  2  lessons. 
Fourth  and  Fifth  Classes — Algebra,  2  lessons. 

— geometry,  2  lessons. 
Sixth  Class — Algebra  and  geometry. 

Seventh  Class — Trigonometry  and  completion  of  algebra. 
Eighth    Class — Mathematical    geography.      Review    of    all 
mathematics  and  application  of  algebra  to  geometry. 

Physics — 

Sixth  Class — Elements  of  physics. 

— Brief  outline  of  most  important  chemical  phenomena. 
Seventh  Class — Continuation  of  Sixth  Class. 
Eighth  Class — Continuation  and  application  of  physics. 
Natural  Science — 

First,  Second  and  Third  Classes — The  earth's  crust,  botany 
and  zoology. 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  81 

History— 

First  f  Second  and  Third  Classes — The  earth's  crust,  botany. 

Third  Class — Brief  accounts  of  the  main  events  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  Ancient  World,  Greece  and  Rome. 

Fourth  Class — Principal  events  and  personalities  of  Medieval 
and  Modern  History,  particularly  in  relation  to  Russia. 

Fifth  Class — Systematic  course  in  the  history  of  Greece  and 
Rome. 

Sixth  Class — First  semester,  systematic  course  in  Medieval 

History. 
Second  semester — Systematic  course  in  Russian  history. 

Seventh  Class — Modern  history  and  Russian  history  in  re- 
lation to  general  history. 

Eighth  Class — Russian  history  in  relation  to  the  rest  of  the 
world  and  a  systematic  review  of  all  history  studied. 

Geography — 

First  Class — Brief  preliminary  study  of  the  elements  of 
mathematical  and  physical  geography  and  study  of  ter- 
restrial globe. 

Second  Class — Geography  of  Asia,  Africa,  America  and 
Australia. 

Third  Class — Geography  of  Europe. 

Fourth  Class — Geography  of  Russia,  physical,  political  and 
ethnological. 

Upper  Classes — Review. 

German,  French  and  English — 

Upper  Classes — Usual  work  in  pronunciation,  reading, 
writing,  translation  and  memorization  of  model 
selections. 


82  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

DETAILED  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  OF  THE 
POLYTECHNIC   SCHOOL 

Religion— 

Preparatory — Sign  of  the  cross,  prayers,  idea  of  the  image. 
Bible  stories  and  symbols  of  faith, 
*(i)  History  of  the  Old  Testament. 

(2)  History  of  the  Old  Testament. 

(3)  Doctrine  of  Christian  Orthodox  (Russian)  Church. 

(4)  First  part  of  the  catechism. 

(5)  Remainder  of  the  catechism.    History  of  the  church. 

(6)  History  of  the  church. 

(7)  Philosophy  of  religion. 

(8)  Philosophy  of  religion. 

Russian — 

Preparatory — Reading,  writing,  copying,  dictation,  grammar. 

(1)  Reading,  writing,  grammar,  etymology,  and  syntax. 

(2)  Explanatory     reading,     selections     from     Russian 

authors:  Tolstoi,  Aksakov,  Grigorovitch,  Tur- 
genev,  Maikov,  Pushkin,  Soloviev.  Learning  of 
poems  and  fables.  Continuation  of  etymology 
and  syntax.  Dictation  calculated  to  apply  all 
rules  of  etymology.  Brief  descriptions  of  com- 
mon animals,  birds  and  fishes.  Reproduction  of 
stories  read. 

(3)  Etymology  and  syntax.   Criticism  of  works  of  Rus- 

sian authors.  Theory  of  poetry.  Poems  mem- 
orized. Composition. 

(4)  Theory  of  literature.     Systematic  course  on  syn- 

tax.   Composition    based    upon    observation   and 
upon  stories  read. 
*  Numbers  refer  to  the  class  in  question. 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  83 

(5)  History  of  Russian  literature.     Composition  work 

tied  up  with  literature  studied.  Simple  themes 
on  abstract  subjects. 

(6)  History  of  Russian  literature. 

(7)  History  of  Russian  literature.    Romantic  and  real- 

istic movement 

(8)  Work  of  the  seventh  class  continued. 

German — 

(1)  Direct  method.   Conversation  about  the  class-room. 

Conversation  centered  on  pictures  of  sleeping- 
room,  dining-room,  drawing-room,  garden,  mar- 
ket. Memorization  of  simple  stories  and  poems. 
Reading  of  Gothic  type.  By  the  end  of  the  year 
the  pupils  must  be  able  to  write  the  sentences 
they  know.  Etymology^  and  syntax. 

(2)  Conversation  about  pictures  of  railway  station,  city, 

store,  maps.  Reading  and  conversation  about 
simple  articles.  Latin  type.  Etymology  and  syn- 
tax. Composition. 

(3)  Conversation  about}  pictures.     Translation.    Gram- 

mar. Composition.  "Der  Pfeiffer  von  Hameln," 
"Das  Reiterbild  in  Diisseldorf." 

(4)  Reading     of     more     difficult     stories.     Systematic 

study  of  grammar.    Composition. 

(5)  Continuation  of  (4). 

(6)  Repetition  of  etymology  and  syntax.    Composition. 

(7)  In  this  class  attention  is  given  to  the  development 

of  the  ability  to  speak  German.  The  teacher 
tells  the  class  the  interesting  and  characteristic 


84  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

peculiarities  of  German  public  and  state  life,  or 
reads  articles  on  this  subject.  The  pupils  use 
this  as  a  basis  for  conversation.  Attention  is  also 
given  to  the  history  of  German  literature.  Read- 
ing of  newspapers,  telegrams,  and  advertise- 
ments. Composition. 

(8)  Conversation.  Reading  of  books  selected  by  the 
pupils.  Reading  of  German  newspapers,  tele- 
grams, advertisements,  exchange  and  trade 
journals,  industrial  and  agricultural  news.  Fur- 
ther study  of  German  literature. 

English— 

(4)  Direct  method.    Rules  of  pronunciation.    Conversa- 

tion.    Part  I    Berlitz   and   the   first    16   lessons 

in  Part  II.  Grammar  learned  in  connection  with 
the  reading. 

(5)  Reading  and  translation   from   the  text   book  by 

Scott  and  Brey.  Written  exercises.  Composition. 
Conversation. 

(6)  Translation   of   articles   and   re-telling   of    stories. 

Thorough  course  in  English  grammar,  with  special 
attention  to  irregular  verbs.  Composition. 

(7)  Continuation   of    (6). 

(8)  Reading  of  newspapers  and  the  works  of  modern 

authors.      Conversation    and    composition. 

History — 

(2)  Preliminary  survey  of  Russian  history. 

(3)  Ancient  history. 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  85 

(4)  Medieval   history.     Systematic   course   in   Russian 

history. 

(5)  European  history  to  the  French  Revolution.     Rus- 

sian history. 

(6)  Modern  European  history  to  the   Second  Empire 

in  France.    Russian  history. 

(7)  Detailed  history  of  the  igth  century. 

(8)  History  of  trade  and  commerce.    Russian  trade. 

Geography  and  Natural  Science — 

(1)  Fundamentals     of     geography.     Fundamentals    o'f 

physics  and  chemistry. 

(2)  Geography    of    Asia,    Africa,    America    and   Aus- 

tralia. (Note:  The  pupil  must  be  able  to  point 
out  on  the  map  the  location  of  places,  and  describe 
the  climate,  flora  and  fauna.  He  must  go  from 
the  North  to  the  South  and  from  the  East 
to  the  West.)  Principal  minerals.  Erosion. 
Volcanic  activity. 

(3)  Description  of  France,  Austria-Hungary  and  Ger- 

many and  less  attention  to  other  countries. 
Brief  historical  introduction.  Frontiers,  acquisi- 
tions, nature  of  the  country,  rivers,  climate, 
rainfall,  soil,  population,  government,  edu- 
cation, trade  and  principal  cities.  Colonies  of 
these  countries. 

(4)  Complete  description  of  the  geography  of  Russia 

in  greater  detail  than  that  demanded  above. 


86  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

ZoClogy— 

(3)  Vertebrates,     fishes,     amphibious     reptiles,     birds, 

mammals  and  man. 

(4)  Invertebrates,  protozoa,  sponges,  worms,  etc. 
Laboratory  work.   Microscope  study  of  hair,  sponge, 

tissue,  foot  of  spider,  butterfly  wing,  proboscis  of 
fly,  foot  of  fly,  cross  section  of  earth-worm.  Study 
of  perch,  frog,  lizard,  pigeon,  hare,  earth-worm, 
crayfish,  and  cockroach. 

Botany — 

(5)  Morphology,  anatomy  and  physiology  of  plants. 
Experiments    in    botany.     Collection    of    common 

plants  and  classifying  them  according  to  the 
scheme  of  Maievski.  Work  with  the  microscope. 
Seventeen  experiments  illustrated  by  the  fol- 
lowing: (a)  growing  seeds  on  paper,  plaster 
Paris,  sawdust  and  earth,  (b)  testing  seeds,  (c) 
extraction  of  oil  from  seeds,  etc. 

Mathematics — 

Arithmetic — Preparatory — Counting,  writing,  fundamental 
operations  up  to  ten,  then  up  to  one  hundred,  and 
before  admission  to  first  class,  operations  of 
any  size. 

(1)  Fundamental  operations. 

(2)  Fractions  and  decimals. 

(3)  Interest,  discount,  bills  of  exchange,  proportion. 
Geometry — (3)  Cutting   and   paper    folding,   and   practical 

mensuration  giving  a  concrete  basis  for  geometry. 
Plane  geometry  beginning  second  semester  as  a 
theoretical  course. 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

(4)  and  (5).  Continuation  of  (3). 
(6)   Solid  geometry. 

Algebra — (3)  Four  fundamental  operations.    The  equation. 
Factoring. 

(4)  Algebraic  fractions,  equations  of  the  first  degree, 

and  square  root. 

(5)  Quadratic  equations  and  logarithms. 

(6)  Binomial  theorem,   fractions,  etc. 
Analytical   Geometry — (7)  Theoretical  course. 
Trig. — (6)  Theoretical   course. 

Calculus — (8)  Introduction    to    the    highest    mathematical 
analysis. 

Commercial  Arithmetic — (5)  Short-cut  methods  of  calcula- 
tion, interest,  etc. 

(6)  Bills  of  exchange,  stocks  and  bonds,  deposits  and 
loans,    international    exchange. 

Physics — 

(4)  Fundamental  nature  of  bodies,  mechanics,  liquids 

and  gases,  molecular  phenomena. 

(5)  Mechanics  and,  heat. 

(6)  Acoustics,  optics,  magnetism  and  electricity. 
Laboratory  work  consists  of  forty-five  experiments. 

Chemistry — 

Inorganic — (5)  General    inorganic   chemistry. 

Organic — (6)  General  inorganic  chemistry,  with  two  hours 

devoted    to    organic    chemistry    and    qualitative 

analysis. 


88  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

PROGRAMS   OP  SPECIAL  DIVISIONS. 

Commercial  Division. 
Jurisprudence — 

(7)  Fundamentals   of   law,   with    special   reference   to 

Russian   National  law. 

(8)  Civil  law.     Law  relating  to  property,  obligations, 

family  and  inheritance.   Law  relating  to  business, 
contracts,  bills  of  exchange,  etc.    Criminal  law. 

Political  Economy — 

(7)  Preliminary  notions,  production  and  exchange  of 

wealth. 

(8)  Distribution     of     income     of     the     people.      Con- 

sumption. 

Commercial  Geography — 

(7)  The   field   of    economic   geography.     Methods   of 

gathering    and    sources    of    economic    statistics. 
Economic  life  of  Russia.    Industrial  geography. 

(8)  Geographical   bases   of    transportation   and   trade. 

Foreign  trade.  Brief  review  of  the  economic  con- 
dition of  the  leading  countries  of  the  world. 

Materials — 

(7)  Textiles  and  fuel.    Minerals. 

(8)  Food,   liquors,   meat,   fish,   oils,  greases  and  their 

products. 

Accompanying  this  work  is  a  good  deal  of  time 
spent  in  the  laboratory,  on  such  processes  as  milk- 
testing,  soap-making,  testing  flour,  grain  products, 
and  textiles. 


(Above)  Writing  Exercise  Book.      (Right)  Writing  Book.    (Below)  Arithmetic  Exercise  Book 
made  from  Waste  Paper.     (Left)  Siberian  School  Journal.     (Center)  Drawing  Book 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  89 

Commercial  Correspondence — 

Russian,  German  and  English  correspondence  hav- 
ing to  do  with  the  purchase  and  sale  of 
merchandise. 

Bookkeeping — 

(7)  Theory  of  accounting  and  bookkeeping. 

(8)  Different  methods  of  bookkeeping.    Relations  with 

the  banks. 

Agricultural  Division 
Surveying — 

(7)  and  (8)  Practical  and  theoretical  work  in  all  types 
of  surveying,  and  map-making. 

Agronomy — 

(7)  Study    of    soil — erosion,    exterior   nature    of    soil, 

mechanical  and  chemical  analysis  of  soil.  Classifi- 
cation of  types  of  soil. 

Tillage  of  soil — tools,  cultivation,  planting,  harvest- 
ing, fertilizer.  Anatomy  and  physiology  of  plants. 

(8)  Study  of  products,  roots,  tubers,  grains,  fibers,  and 

herbs.  Accompanying  this  work  is  a  considerable 
emphasis  on  work  in  the  laboratory  in  winter  and 
field  in  summer.  Each  student  is  expected  to 
make  collections  of  rocks,  soils  and  plants,  to  per- 
form the  various  tests,  and  actually  run  machines 
and  watch  a  farm  at  work. 

Agricultural  Economics — 

(7)  Theory  of  economics.  , 

7 


90  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

(8)  Capital,    labor,   product,    organization,    administra- 
tion and  control.    Agricultural  taxation. 
In  connection  with  this  course,  during  the  summer, 
the  pupils  are  given  practice  in  collection  of  sta- 
tistics.   They  place  valuations  on  estates,  etc. 

Forestry — 

In  addition  to  a  small  amount  of  theoretical  work  dur- 
ing the  winter,  the  students  in  the  summer  gain 
much  practical  experience  in  appraising  values  of 
forests,  in  determining  various  types  of  trees,  in 
conserving  this  wealth  and  improving  the  worth 
of  such  tracts. 

Land  Laws — 

(7)  Surveying.  History  of  the  survey  of  Russian  lands. 

Rules  of  governmental  and  county  survey.    Court 
definitions.     Surveying  of  peasant  lands. 

(8)  System  of  peasant  ownership  of  land  in  European 

Russia.     Land  rights   of   aborigines,   and   immi- 
grants in  Siberia. 

Improvement  of  Rural  Conditions — 

(7)  Mechanics,  hydraulics,  materials  and  architecture. 

(8)  Road-making,    erection    of    homes    and    business 

structures,  making  of  drains,  dikes,  etc. 

Mining  Division 
Mechanics — 

(7)  Fundamentals  of  mechanics,  statics,  dynamics, 
hydrodynamics.  Theory  of  simple  machines. 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  91 

(8)  Fundamentals.  Transmission  machines  and  mech- 
anisms. Use  of  horse-power  machinery,  water 
wheels  and  turbines,  windmills,  steam  engines, 
hot  air,  gas  and  kerosene  engines.  Pumps. 

Assaying — 

(7)  Analytical  chemistry.    Metals  by  groups. 

(8)  Qualitative     analysis.      Technical     analysis.      Gas 

analysis. 

Metallurgy— 

(7)  Fundamentals.     Metallurgy  of  iron. 

(8)  Metallurgy  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead  and  zinc. 

Geology— 

(7)  General  mineralogy,  crystallography.  Classifica- 
tion according  to  the  system  of  Dehn.  Funda- 
mental classification  of  rocks,  simple,  compound, 
crystallic,  and  sedimentary.  Origin  of  rocks. 
Geologic  classification. 
In  summer,  excursions. 

Art  of  Mining — 

(7)  Layers  of  useful  minerals.  Mining  instruments  and 

their  use. 

(8)  Surveying  and  planning  a  mine.  Practical  experi- 

ence in  the  coal  mines  of  Tomsk  "  state." 

Architecture — 

(8)  Building  materials.  Planning  buildings  for  mines 
and  smelters. 


92  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

Descriptive  Geometry — 

(7)  Theoretical   course. 

Mine  Surveying — 

(8)  Practical  work  during  July  and  August  in  survey- 

ing mines. 

Electricity — 

(8)  Electric  current.  Magnetic  field.  Direct  and  alter- 
nating current.  Electric  measurement.  Dynamo 
and  motor.  Transformers.  Electric  lighting  and 
electric  traction.  Peculiar  adaptation  of  electricity 
to  mining.  Much  practical  work  in  laboratory. 

The  Girls'  Gymnasium,  the  Real  School  and  the 
Commercial  School  are  quite  similar  to  the  gym- 
nasium for  boys  in  the  subjects  that  they  have  in 
common.  It  has  always  been  the  ambition  of  the 
Girls'  Gymnasium  to  become  quite  similar  to  the 
Boys'  Gymnasium,  and  one  of  the  first  acts  of  these 
schools,  as  soon  as  the  Revolution  gave  the  freedom, 
was  to  introduce  Latin.  There  is  very  little  work  in 
Home  Economics.  However,  it  is  not  uncommon 
to  find  a  special  class  in  pedagogy  for  prospective 
teachers.  The  Real  School  gives  more  attention  to 
modern  languages  and  to  science  in  the  place  of 
teaching  Latin  and  Greek.  The  Commercial  School 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  93 

bends  all  its  efforts  to  the  giving  of  a  good  general 
education  with  a  certain  amount  of  specialized  com- 
mercial training  in  addition.  In  some  cities  parents 
send  their  boys  to  this  school  to  prepare  for  the 
higher  educational  institutions.  They  are  newer 
schools,  generally  well  equipped,  and  more  progres- 
sive than  the  older  secondary  schools. 

These  schools,  while  often  receiving  certain 
money  from  the  central  government,  are  supported 
largely  by  the  communities  in  which  they  are  located. 
This  support  comes  from  endowment  and  tuition 
fees.  Just  at  present  these  sources  of  support  are 
quite  inadequate.  In  many  cases  the  Bolsheviki 
appropriated  the  endowment  funds,  removing  that 
source  of  support.  The  Central  Government  has  not 
yet  been  able  to  raise  sufficient  money  to  meet  its 
obligations.  The  currency  has  so  greatly  depreciated 
that  even  a  100  per  cent,  increase  in  tuition  charges 
fails  to  meet  the  need.  Tuition  charges  before  the 
Revolution  were  from  70  to  200  roubles  a  year,  most 
of  the  schools  visited  charging  less  than  100  roubles. 
At  present  the  increase  has  been  from  60  per  cent, 
to  120  per  cent.,  while  the  currency  has  only  one-fifth 
of  its  pre-revolutionary  purchasing  power. 

The  teachers  are  well  trained,  having  received 


94  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

their  education  in  the  Universities  or  Technological 
Institutes.  The  teachers  do  not  receive  a  fixed  salary. 
They  are  paid  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  hours 

/  taught.  In  the  Vladivostok  Commercial  School  the 
teachers  receive  150  roubles  per  year  for  each  hour 
they  teach  each  week.  Thus  if  a  teacher  teaches 
thirty  periods  a  week  he  receives  4500  roubles  a  year ; 
if  he  teaches  only  fifteen  hours  a  week,  his  pay  is 
only  one-half.  In  the  Irkutsk  Boys'  Gymnasium  the 
teachers  receive  250  roubles  per  year  for  each  hour 
taught,  and  in  addition  receive  certain  bonuses.  If 
a  teacher  is  in  charge  of  a  classroom,  or  study  hall, 
he  receives  250  roubles  extra  per  year.  For  each  five 
years  of  service,  up  to  and  including  fifteen  years, 
he  receives  800  roubles  additional  per  year.  This 
pay  of  course  is  not  at  all  proportionate  to  the  depre- 

.  ciation  of  the  currency. 

The  methods  of  teaching  present  few  points  of 
interest.  Most  of  the  classes  in  German,  French  and 
English  were  taught  by  the  direct  method.  German 
is  taught  very  well,  while  English  is  rarely  taught 
except  in  the  Far  East,  and  then  not  particularly 
well.  It  is  unfortunate  that  there  is  such  a  lack  of 
good  teachers  of  English  in  Siberia.  Many  of  the 
schools  would  like  to  teach  English,  in  place  of  Ger- 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  95 

man,  but  no  teachers  are  available.  The  work  in 
science  is  crippled  by  a  lack  of  equipment.  Chemi- 
cals cannot  be  had.  It  is  the  general  practice  for  a 
teacher  to  perform  an  experiment  before  the  class, 
but  not  for  the  members  of  the  class  themselves  to 
perform  an  experiment.  Thus  we  find  only  one 
desk  in  most  of  the  laboratories.  An  exception  to 
this  is  found  in  the  Polytechnic  School  in  Tomsk. 
In  the  classes  in  religion,  the  priest  lectures;  the 
pupils  make  formal  responses.  The  pupils  appear  to 
use  this  hour  for  mental  reflection,  because  there  is 
no  apparent  interest  in  the  class  nor  attention  paid 
the  teacher. 

The  Great  War  and  the  Revolution  have  had 
a  very  bad  effect  on  the  discipline  in  secondary 
schools.  As  is  shown  in  the  brief  chapter  on  the 
Pupils'  Unions,  the  pupils  of  these  schools  have 
taken  an  active  interest  in  school  reform.  Because  of 
this,  or  concurrent  with  this,  has  arisen  an  unfor- 
tunate slackening  of  discipline,  a  lack  of  respect  for 
the  teachers.  In  several  of  the  schools  there  was 
no  order  in  the  halls,  classes  were  in  an  uproar,  and 
there  was  general  impoliteness  to  teachers,  director, 
and  visitors.  Students  say  that  the  authority  of  the 
teacher  over  the  pupils  is  quite  gone.  Of  course  there 


96  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

are  exceptions  to  this,  and  it  may  be  that  the  writer 
was  unduly  impressed  by  a  few  scattered  exceptions. 
It  was  the  doctrine  of  initiative  and  pupil  self-gov- 
ernment carried  to  as  great  an  extreme  as  the  Bol- 
sheviki  took  the  doctrines  of  democracy. 

There  is  practically  no  social  life  in  the  schools, 
as  we  find  in  the  American  High  School.  No  so- 
cieties, no  school  papers,  no  athletics,  except  as 
noted  later. 

Without  exception  the  secondary  schools  visited 
by  the  writer  were  housed  in  fine  buildings.  They 
are  well  built  with  thick  walls  of  brick  or  stone, 
double  windows  and  tile  wall  stoves.  The  writer  did 
not  see  a  single  room  with  cross-light  or  with  light 
coming  anywhere  but  from  the  left  and  rear  of 
the  room.  The  worst  features  were  the  floors  and 
sanitary  facilities. 

There  is  usually  a  church  in  each  secondary 
school,  where  services  are  held  on  Sunday  and  on 
frequent  holidays.  Each  schoolroom  has  an  ikon  in 
the  corner  with  an  ever-burning  candle  before  it. 

These  secondary  schools  (the  commercial  schools 
excepted)  are  much  more  conservative  than  the  pri- 
mary schools.  In  some  cities  the  secondary  school 
teachers  have  refused  to  join  with  the  primary  school 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  97 

teachers  in  a  common  union  or  association,  the  ques- 
tion of  religion  in  the  schools  being  one  of  the  main 
points  at  issue. 

The  school  day  begins  between  eight  and  nine 
and  closes  early  in  the  afternoon.  Pupils  do  a  great 
deal  of  their  work  at  home,  the  upper  classes  spend- 
ing three,  four  or  more  hours  in  preparation  of  work 
for  the  next  day.  Schools  are  open  six  days  a  week 
for  nine  months  in  the  year,  but  as  there  are  many 
church  holidays,  the  total  number  of  days  taught  does 
not  exceed  twenty  a  month. 

Teachers  and  pupils  both  wear  uniforms,  this 
being  considered  a  sign  of  distinction.  Graduation 
from  a  secondary  school  gives  the  right  to  wear  a 
badge  or  medal,  and  this  distinction  is  worn  there- 
after all  through  life.  Even  army  officers  wear  upon 
their  uniforms  the  medal  which  is  significant  of 
graduation  from  an  educational  institution. 


VIII.  THE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 

THE  writer  visited  the  Normal  Schools  at  Irkutsk 
and  Nicholsk  and  conferred  with  Teacher  Training 
Faculties  in  Vladivostok  and  Tomsk.  The  two  for- 
mer schools  had  buildings  of  their  own,  with  separate 
training  schools  for  observation  and  practice.  The 
two  latter  were  new  schools,  and  as  yet  had  no 
buildings.  They  were  evening  or  part-time  schools. 

The  Normal  School  at  Irkutsk  had  been  badly 
affected  by  the  result  of  the  disorganization  of  the 
country.  Before  the  Revolution,  these  schools  had 
been  entirely  state  supported,  and  the  pupils  not  only 
were  not  required  to  pay  tuition,  but  in  addition  were 
allowed  twenty-five  roubles  a  month  to  help  pay  for 
their  room  and  board.  In  the  days  when  the  rouble 
was  at  standard,  and  the  cost  of  living  was  low, 
this  sum  paid  all  necessary  expenses  of  the  pro- 
spective teachers.  To-day,  however,  the  sum  can 
easily  be  expended  for  one  meal.  No  increased  sup- 
port has  been  given,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  even  the 
present  appropriations  can  be  kept  up.  The  soldiers 
are  using  a  part  of  the  building  as  a  hospital,  and 
only  sixty  pupils  are  left,  almost  all  of  the  young 

98 


Normal  School  Pupils  at  Work 


Normal  School  at  Nicholsk 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  99 

men  being  drafted  into  the  army.     Altogether  the 
prospect  is  rather  discouraging. 

The  Normal  School  at  Nicholsk  is  one  of  the  best 
schools  that  the  writer  ever  saw,  if  a  school  be  judged 
by  its  success  in  accomplishing  the  task  which  it  sets 
out  to  accomplish.  Here  there  are  mostly  young 
women,  and  being  near  Vladivostok,  the  disorganized 
conditions  of  the  interior  have  not  as  greatly  affected 
it.  The  entire  work  is  organized  to  the  one  purpose 
of  preparing  young  men  and  women  to  become  suc- 
cessful and  happy  teachers  of  a  village  school.  They 
are  taught  the  subjects  which  they  in  turn  must  teach 
to  their  children,  reading,  writing,  spelling,  geogra- 
phy, history,  nature  study  and  arithmetic.  In  addi- 
tion they  receive  some  instruction  in  the  better 
methods  of  presenting  these  subjects,  and  have  a 
chance  to  practice  and  observe  in  the  special  school 
on  the  grounds,  run  as  an  observational,  and  practice 
school.  The  significant  feature  of  the  course  lies  in 
the  practical  arts.  Here  the  girls  are  taught  wood 
and  clay  work,  drawing,  painting,  sewing,  etc.,  not 
as  isolated  subjects,  but  rather  to  contribute  to  their 
future  lives  as  teachers.  They  not  only  learn  to 
draw;  they  receive  practice  in  enlarging  pictures, 
maps  and  charts  from  textbooks  to  be  hung  upon 


ioo  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

the  wall  and  observed  by  all.  In  the  woodwork  they 
make  little  models  of  primitive  chairs,  a  loom,  physics 
equipment  and  other  articles  useful  in  a  schoolroom. 
In  clay  work,  there  will  be  a  model  of  a  Korean 
home,  Caesar's  Bridge  or  a  Siberian  Gold  Mine. 
These  are  all  to  be  used  in  class  work.  The  members 
of  the)  faculty  of  this  Normal  School  say  that  the 
girls  that  teach  in  a  village  school  have  new  interest 
in  their  work.  They  at  once  set  about  making  charts 
and  maps,  building  models,  making  collections  of 
flowers,  plants,  products,  etc.  It  is  not  long  until 
a  considerable  amount  of  equipment  is  gathered 
together  and  then  the  teacher  feels  that  she  is  a 
real  part  of  the  school.  It  is  only  a  short  time  until 
so  many  different  things  have  been  made,  that  the 
teacher  feels  a  proprietary  interest  in  the  work  of 
the  school.  She  herself  has  constructed  much  of 
it,  and  it  is  her  property.  Another  good  feature 
of  the  work  of  this  school  is  the  gathering  of  the 
alumni  each  spring.  The  teachers  from  the  various 
schools  come  together  at1  the  Normal,  and  then 
there  tell  the  faculty  all  the  things  that  should  have 
been  included  in  the  course  of  study,  of  which  they 
were  in  need.  The  school  is  surprisingly  alert,  and 
is  developing  rapidly. 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 


tax 


It  is  interesting  to  note  in  Russia  that  the  matter 
of  training  teachers  is  considered  the  function  of 
the  state,  and  that  support  of  all  sorts  is  given  to 
the  students. 

While  the  program  of  studies  is  undergoing  great 
change,  the  course  is  essentially  as  follows : 

Program  of  Studies,  Teachers1  Seminary,  Nicholsk 


Subject 

First  year 

Second  year 

Third  year 

Religion  

4 

3 

2 

Russian 

2 

Slavonic 

2 

i 

I 

Arithmetic 

A 

7 

2 

Geometry  

I 

2 

2 

History  

2 

3 

2 

Geography  

3 

2 

2 

Natural  Science 

2 

7 

7 

Drawing 

5 

4. 

-* 

Pedagogy                 .    .  . 

2 

3 

Gymnastics          

2 

2 

2 

Singing  

2 

2 

2 

Practice  Teaching  

6 

Total  

31 

31 

32 

IX.  TEACHERS'  AND  PUPILS'  UNIONS 

THE  TEACHERS'  UNION 

BEFORE  the  Revolution  teachers  were  not  allowed 
the  right  of  meeting  and  association.  One  of  the 
first  steps  of  the  Kerenski  regime  was  the  formation 
of  Teachers'  Associations  or  Unions  (Syusa),  and 
at  the  present  time  we  find  unions  in  practically  all 
the  cities  and  governmental  subdivisions. 

These  unions  have  assumed  a  prominent  place  in 
the  reorganization  of  education  and  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  school  affairs.  The  constitution  of  the 
Teachers'  Union  of  the  City  of  Irkutsk  is  here  given 
complete.  The  President  of  the  Teachers'  Union 
is  one  of  the  most  important  educational  officials  of 
the  locality,  if  not  the  most  important  official.  Inas- 
much as  each  school  (primary  schools  excepted)  is 
controlled  by  a  pedagogical  council,  the  great  major- 
ity of  which  is  composed  of  teachers,  the  teachers 
constitute  the  controlling  element  in  school  adminis- 
tration. Just  as  financial  and  business  matters  are 
unified  through  the  City  or  Zemstvo  government, 
so  educational  matters  are  unified  through  the 

102 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  103 

Teachers'  Union.  The  policy  adopted  by  this  Union 
controls  the  action  of  the  various  Pedagogical  Coun- 
cils. The  writer  had  many  conferences  with  the 
Executive  Committees  of  Teachers'  Unions  in  vari- 
ous places  in  Siberia;  he  delivered  lectures  before 
such  unions  in  many  places,  and  found  these  groups 
exceptionally  alert  and  intelligent. 

As  may  be  seen  in  the  following  constitution, 
these  unions  are  much  like  the  Teachers'  Associa- 
tions in  our  own  country.  They  assume,  however, 
a  much  more  important  place,  because  other  institu- 
tions have  as  yet  given  but  little  leadership. 

The  Teachers'  Union  in  Siberia  practically  con- 
trols the  appointment  and  tenure  of  teachers,  the 
program  of  study,  and  the  life  of  the  school. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  CITY  TEACHERS'  UNION,  IRKUTSK 
I.  AIMS  OF  THE  UNION 

1.  The  Union  accepts  the  aims  of  the  All-Russian  Teachers' 
Union,  namely : 

A.  To  strive  for  the  legal,  cultural  and  economic  interests 
of  the  teachers,  that  teachers  may  be  represented  in  the  same 
way  other  professions  are. 

B.  To  apply  scientific  principles  to  public  instruction. 

C.  To  organize  public  instruction  in  Russia  in  the  interests 
of  freedom,  democracy  and  decent  civilization. 

2.  To  secure  the  above  mentioned  principles,  the  Union 


io4  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

A.  Defends  them  before  the  government,  public  and  pri- 
vate  institutions  and  individuals. 

B.  Spreads  the  ideas  among  teachers  and  all  the1  people  by 
lectures,  courses,  publications,  libraries,  exhibitions,  meetings, 
etc.,  etc. 

C.  Carries  out  propositions  pertaining  to  the  defence  of 
the  teaching  profession,  defending  them  from  the  government, 
public  and  private  institutions  and  individuals,  in  the  regula- 
tion of  the  conditions  of  work  (such  as  the  raising  of  salaries, 
the  fixing  of  standards  in  the  number  of  pupils  per  teacher, 
thd  improvement  of  sanitary  conditions,  etc.),  and  also  super- 
vises    the     practice     of     reforms     in     working     conditions, 
organizes  a  treasury  for  mutual  help,  an  employment  bureau, 
cooperative    purchasing    associations,    sanatoriums,    teachers' 
club-houses,  legal  aid  for  teachers,  etc.,  etc. 

D.  Collects  and  gives  all  sorts  of  statements  and  statistics 
concerning  schools  and  teachers. 

E.  Considers  questions  of  public  education  and  discusses 
present    school    organization    in    the    light    of    the    aims    of 
the  Union. 

F.  Organizes  collective  protests  and  petitions  of  teachers. 

G.  Defends  legal  interests  of  teachers  an<$  pupils. 

H.  Takes  part  in  the  administration  of  Irkutsk  schools 
through  its  representatives. 

I.  Gives  organized  expression  of  the  cultural  needs  of 
the  community  in  the  local  governments. 

II.   COMPOSITION   OF   THE    UNION 

3.  Members  of  the  Union  may  be  teachers  now  in  service 
and  former  teachers  in  schools  of  all  types  for  whom  teaching 
is  or  was  a  profession. 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  105 

4.  Teachers    and    former   teachers   who    wish   to    become 
members  of  the  Union  must  make  application,  the  former  to 
be  accepted  by  the  Executive  Committee,  the  latter  by  the 
general  meeting.    All  members  of  the  Union  pay  to  the  treas- 
ury one  per  cent,  of  their  salary  as  teacher,  either  in  one  an- 
nual payment  or  monthly. 

5.  Members  may  resign  from  the  Union  upon  written  ap- 
plication.   Members  in  arrears  without  proper  excuses  are  ex- 
cluded from  the  Union  until  their  dues  are  paid.     Payment 
of   fees  may  not  be  deferred  without  permission   from  the 
Executive  Committee  upon  a  written  excuse  from  a  member. 

Fees  are  not  returned  to  members  resigning  or  expelled  from 
the  Union. 

6.  Members   of   the  Union  whose  actions  violate  the  in- 
terests of  the  Union,  who  lower  the  dignity  of  the  teaching 
profession,  may  be  expelled  from  the  Union  if  judged  guilty 
by  an  Honor  Court  and  confirmed  by  a  majority  vote  of  the 
general  meeting. 

III.  FINANCES     OF    THE    UNION 

7.  The  finances  of  the  Union  consist  of  (a)  membership 
fees,  (b)  income  from  capital,  properties,  institutions  and 
enterprises  of  the  Union,  (c)  gifts  of  members  of  the  Union 
and  others,  (d)  incomes  from  entertainments,  literary  even- 
ings, public  lectures,  concerts,  publications,  etc.,  organized  by 
the  Union. 

8.  The  finances  of  the  Union  are  divided  into  the  Reserve 
Fund,  the  Expense  Fund  and  the  Special  Fund,     (a)  The  Re- 
serve Fund  is  formed  at  the  general  meeting  by  voting  to  lay 
aside  a  certain  per  cent,  of  the  income,  to  be  expended  ac- 
8 


io6  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

cording  to  resolution  of  the  general  meeting  in  the  purchase 
of  real  property,  building,  or  to  meet  other  fundamental 
needs  which  correspond  to  the  aims  and  purposes  of  the 
Union,  (b)  The  Expense  Fund  consists  of  the  remaining 
money  which  has  no  special  purpose,  to  be  expended  by  the 
Union  according  to  a  budget  adopted  in  the  general  meeting, 
(c)  Special  funds  are  formed  by  the  general  meeting  or  by 
gift  to  be  expended  by  the  Directors  to  accomplish  the  pur- 
pose for  which  they  were  created. 

IV.   ADMINISTRATION    OF    UNION    MATTERS 

9.  The  Union  acts  through  a  general  meeting  of  members, 
directors  of  executive  committee,  audit  committee  and  court 
of  honor,  and  divisions,  sections,  committees  and  commissions. 

A.  General  Meeting. 

10.  The    highest    law-giving    institution    of    the    Union    is 
the  general   meeting  of   its   members,   ruling  all   matters   of 
the  Union. 

11.  There  are  regular  and  special  meetings. 

12.  Regular   meetings   occur   not  less   than   twice   a   year, 
special  meetings  according  to  the  request  of  the  Executive 
Committee,  the  Audit  Committee,  or  a  petition  of  one-tenth 
of  the  members,  in  the  latter  two  cases  the  Executive  Com- 
mittee being  compelled  to  call  the  meeting  within  two  weeks 
of  receipt  of  request.     Absent  members  may  present  written 
opinions  to  be  read  and  considered  at  the  meeting. 

13.  A  special  chairman  is  elected  for  each1  meeting.    Mem- 
bers of  the  Executive  or  Audit  Committee  cannot  preside  at 
elections  called  to  discuss  the  actions  of  these  committees, 
nor  at  general  elections. 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  107 

14.  One-fifth  of  the  members  constitute  a  quorum.    When 
a  quorum  is  not  present  a  second  meeting  may  be  called  at 
which  any  number  present  constitute  a  quorum,  but  this  type 
of  meeting1  may  not  elect  members  of  the  Executive  Commit- 
tee or  expel  members. 

15.  Elections    to    the    Executive    Committee    and    Honor 
Court  are  made  by  secret  ballot. 

B.  Executive    Committee. 

16.  The  Executive  Committee  is  composed  of  at  least  five 
members  elected  for  one  year  by  the  general  meeting.  Places 
may  be  filled  at  any  general  meeting. 

17.  Presidents    of    various    divisions    may    be    present    at 
meetings  of  Executive  Committee  with  power  to  vote,  if  spe- 
cially authorized  by  the  division  in  question.    Any  member  of 
the  Union  or  experts  requested  to  attend;  may  be  present  in  an 
advisory  capacity. 

18.  The  members  of  the  Executive  Committee  from  their 
own  membership  elect  a  President,  his  assistants,  a  treasurer, 
secretary  and  other  officers.     These  positions  may  carry  sal- 
aries, if  authorized  by  the  general  meeting.    Members  of  the 
Executive   Committee  who   fail  to  attend  three  meetings  in 
succession  forfeit  their  membership. 

19.  Half  the  members  constitute  a  quorum.     Resolutions 
must  have  a  majority  vote. 

20.  The  Executive  Committee  is  the  .executive  organ  of  the 
general  meetings  of  the  Union.     Its  duties  are :   (a)  general 
direction  of  the  activities  of  the  Union,  (6)  securing  additional 
funds,  and  attainment  of  the  aims  of  the  Union,  (c)  adminis- 
tration of  institutions  of  the  Union,   (d)   calling  of  general 


io8  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

meetings,  (e)  forming  and  presenting  to  the  general  meeting 
the  annual  report  and  budget,  (/)  correspondence  with  insti- 
tutions and  individuals  regarding  Union  matters,  (g)  prelim- 
inary consideration  and  report  on  matters  of  interest  to  the 
general  meeting.  All  instructions  and  rules  of  the  Executive 
Committee  are  subject  to  confirmation  by  the  general  meeting. 

21.  The  President  of  the  Executive  Committee  calls  all 
meetings  of  the  Executive  Committee,  has  charge  of  the  work 
of  the  Executive  Co'mmittee,  and  signs  all  official  papers.    To 
secure  money  from  the  banks,  the  President  and  Treasurer 
both  must  sign  warrants. 

22.  The  first  aid  of  the  President  assumes  his  duties  when 
absent. 

23.  The  Secretary  is  required  to  keep  complete  minutes  of 
meetings  of  the  Executive  Committee,  call  the  roll,  sign  official 
papers,  and  write  the  annual  report. 

24.  The    Treasurer   receives    the   money,    keeps   accounts, 
makes  payments  and  presents  an  annual  report,  in  accordance 
with  special  instructions. 

C.  Audit  Committee 

26.  The  Audit  Committee  is  composed  of  at  least  three 
members  and  two  substitutes  or  alternates  elected  at  the  gen- 
eral meeting  each  year. 

26.  The  Audit   Committee  controls  the   money,   property 
and  books  of  the  Union.     It  examines  the   annual  reports, 
accounts  and  budgets  three  weeks  before  the  annual  meeting, 
making  its  report  to  the  Executive  Committee  one  week  before 
the  annual  meeting. 

27.  At  the  close  of  the  year  the  Audit  Committee  makes  a 
report  to  the  general  meeting. 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  109 

D.  Honor  Court 

28.  For  the  examination  of  cases  in  violation  of  profes- 
sional ethics,  an  Honor  Court  is  organized,  elected  by  the 
general  meeting,  which  determines  its  powers  and  methods 
of  procedure. 

E.  Divisions  of  the  Union 

29.  Members  of  the  Union  may  divide  within  thei  Union 
into  special  sections  according  to  their  special  interests  such  as 
types  of  schools,  location  in  cities,  subjects  of  instruction,  etc. 
Thus  organized  they  are  autonomous  within  the  limits  of  the 
constitution  of  the  Union. 

30.  Each  division  should  have  a  special  constitution  defining 
its  purposes  and  rights. 

31.  Each  division  presents  an  annual  report  to  the  President 
of  the  Executive  Committee  a  month  before  the  annual  meet- 
ing; and  the  resolutions  of  each  meeting  should  be  transmit- 
ted to  the  Executive  Committee. 

32.  In  case  a  division  ceases  to  exist,  its  property,  funds 
and  institutions  revert  to  the  Union. 

V .  Liquidation   of  the    Union 

33.  If   for  any  reason  the  Union  ceases  its  activities  all 
funds  and  property  belonging  to  it  are  transferred,  accord- 
ing to  resolution  of  the  general  meeting,  to  institutions  or  so- 
cieties of  similar  aims. 

VI.  General  Points 

34.  The  Union  is  a  corporation  and  therefore  has  the  legal 
right  to  buy  and  sell  real  property,  to  conclude  contracts,  and 
to  sue  and  be  sued. 

35.  The  Union  has  its  seal. 


1 10  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

THE  PUPILS'  UNION 

WHEN  governmental  organization  broke  down 
in  Russia,  it  became  the  fashion  for  all  groups  of 
people  to  organize.  The  Soviet  Government,  which 
under  the  direction  of  the  Bolsheviki  betrayed 
the  country  and  worked  such  harm,  was  only 
the  evil  direction  of  a  government  composed  of 
representatives  of  Unions  of  all  the  people,  the 
middle  class  excepted. 

Just  as  the  Unions  were  formed  of  teachers,  so 
pupils  themselves  organized.  In  Vladivostok  all  the 
secondary  school  pupils,  both  boys  and  girls,  or- 
ganized a  union  "to  protect  the  interests  of  the 
pupils/'  to  build  up  friendship  and  better  relationship 
between  the  pupils,  and  to  help  poor  students 
who  needed  assistance. 

At  first  representation  was  given  to  the  pupils 
on  the  Pedagogical  Councils  of  the  various  schools, 
stimulating  organization  on  their  part,  since  they 
were  compelled  to  elect  representatives. 

In  Vladivostok,  the  Pupils'  Union  began  to 
assume  functions  which  had  troubled  the  school 
authorities,  functions  which  the  schools  of  the  United 
States  have  been  tardy  in  assuming.  To  the  meetings 
of  the  Union  are  invited  prominent  representatives 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  1 1 1 

of  various  occupations  or  professions  to  address  them 
on  the  characteristics  of  their  life  work.  The  boys 
say  that  upon  graduation  from  the  secondary  school 
they  are  absolutely  ignorant  of  the  various  lines  of 
work  open  to  them,  that  they  do  not  know  what  they 
are  prepared  to  do,  and  that  the  only  advice  they 
receive  from  their  teachers  is  to  go  to  the  university, 
where  in  turn  they  are  mystified  as  to  which  faculty 
to  choose.  So  a  meagre  sort  of  vocational  guidance 
has  been  one  of  their  first  steps. 

Another  activity  of  the  Pupils'  Union  has  been 
to  open  and  maintain  a  cooperative  book  and  supply 
store.  They  purchase  their  supplies  in  large  quanti- 
ties, sell  them  more  cheaply  than  the  local  merchants, 
and  use  the  profits  to  support  poor  students. 

Each  month  this  union  publishes  a  paper,  inform- 
ing the  members  of  the  activity  of  the  Union,  and 
running  matters  of  interest. 

While  the  apparent  effect  of  the  Revolution  has 
been  to  demoralize  the  student  body  of  some  of  the 
secondary  schools,  and  to  shake  the  respect  of  stu- 
dents for  their  teachers,  nevertheless  efforts  like  these 
are  to  be  admired.  There  is  evidently  an  under- 
current of  solidity  running  through  the  Russian  pupil. 


X.  EXPERIENCES    WITH    SIBERIAN 
TEACHERS 

About  forty  per  cent,  of  the  thousands  of  in- 
quiries that  came  to  the  Moscow  office  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Public  Information  during  the  winter  and 
spring  of  1918  had  to  do  with  matters  of  education. 
Not  only  did  the  thinking  people  of  Russia  wish  to 
become  acquainted  with  the  educational  theories  of 
the  philosophers  of  other  countries,  but  there  was  a 
desire  to  know  the  specific  facts  about  school  or- 
ganization and  administration.  They  were  particu- 
larly anxious  to  learn  about  the  schools  of  the  United 
States.  The  Russian  translation  of  selections  from 
Dr.  Capen's  "  Opportunity  for  Study  in  American 
Universities  "  had  been  so  much  in  demand  that  the 
supply  was  exhausted. 

It  was  to  meet  this  need  that  I  was  invited  to 
accompany  the  mission  when  the  office  of  the  Rus- 
sian Division  was  transferred  from  Moscow  to 
Vladivostok.  It  was  planned  to  write  educational  ar- 
ticles for  the  newspapers,  conduct  question-and- 
answer  columns  on  educational  subjects,  answer  in- 
quiriesi  that  might;  bd  directed  to  the  office,  and  hold 
conferences  with  teachers,  if  it  were  deemed  advis- 

112 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  1 13 

able.  We  took  with  us  a  large  case  of  material, 
including  the  best  books  on  American  education, 
Monroe's  "  Cyclopedia  of  Education/'  surveys,  state 
reports  and  college  and  university  catalogs.  Com- 
missioner Claxton  gave  us  an  almost  complete  file 
of  the  Bulletins  of  the  Bureau  of  Education  and  a 
number  of  rough  half-tones  were  made  for  use  in 
illustration.  I  also  included  a  few  pictures  and 
charts,  thinking  that  there  might  be  a  possibility  of 
having  an  educational  exhibit. 

One  did  not  have  to  remain  long  in  Vladivostok 
to  realize  the  need  for  work  of  this  sort.  Educa- 
tional conditions  were  in  flux.  As  has  been  shown 
above,  the  effect  of  the  revolution  had  been  to  decen- 
tralize the  government,  the  laws  given  out  by  the 
Temporary  Siberian  Government  had  covered  but 
little  ground  and  carried  but  little  authority.  Indi- 
vidual schools  were  often  in  control  of  their  own 
pedagogical  councils.  There  was  agreement 
upon  but  one  point.  The  system  of  education 
that  they  did  not  want  had  been  in  effect  during 
the  reign  of  the  Tsars.  Beyond  that,  opinions 
were  at  great  variance. 

Coupled  with  this  was  the  unfortunate  fact  that 
few  of  those  in  power  in  the  schools  had  had  the 


ii4  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

benefit  of  foreign  travel  and  study.  The  experi- 
ences of  England,  France,  Denmark,  Switzerland 
and  the  United  States  in  modifying  the  old  auto- 
cratic system  of  education  to  meet  the  needs  of  a 
democracy  were  practically  unknown.  The  school- 
masters of  Siberia  were  reforming  a  great  educa- 
tional system  without  a  knowledge  of  the  points  of 
success  and  failure  of  other  peoples  who  had  had 
similar  problems  to  meet. 

It  was  also  evident  that  there  was  some  misin- 
formation about  the  schools  of  America.  Negro 
schools  were  cited  as  an  evidence  of  a  lack  of  dem- 
ocracy. The  controversy  over  the  teaching  of  the 
classics  was  considered  by  some  as  only  another 
indication  of  the  grasping  commercialism  of  Amer- 
ica. The  removal  of  certain  pro-German  professors 
from  some  of  our  universities  was  taken  to  mean  the 
persecution  of  the  teaching  profession  on  account 
of  its  political  beliefs.  The  fact  that  several  in- 
stances like  these  came  to  light  gives  one  the  suspi- 
cion that  there  was  a  systematic  effort  on  the  part 
of  some  organization  to  discredit  the  United  States, 
and  it  is  probable  that  the  Wilhelmstrasse  knew 
something  about  it. 

A  Book  on  American  Schools. — Vladivostok  had 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  1 1 5 

not  appeared  to  be  the  most  favorable  place  in  which 
to  begin  educational  work.  The  Japanese  General 
Staff  occupied  the  largest  and  best  school.  The 
American  Red  Cross  and  the  Stevens  Railway  Mis- 
sion were  quartered  in  another.  Early  in  September 
schools  had  not  opened  their  doors,  and  educational 
officials  were  hard  to  find.  The  city  was  over- 
crowded. Soldiers  of  all  the  Allies,  sailors  from  the 
warships  in  the  harbor,  civilians  from  the  four 
quarters  of  the  globe  mingled  with  Russians  from  all 
parts  of  the  empire.  A  room  in  a  hotel  was  not  to 
be  had.  Restaurants  were  filled  from  morning  until 
late  at  night.  The  Czecho-Slovaks  under  General 
Gaida  had  just  opened  up  the  Trans-Siberian 
Railways,  and  trains  of  refugees  were  adding  daily 
to  the  population.  Everybody  seemed  too  busy 
to  pay  attention  to  so  normal  and  ordinary 
an  affair  as  education. 

So  the  time  was  spent  in  preparing  for  publi- 
cation a  series  of  articles  on  education  in  the  United 
States.  We  were  not  interested  in  painting  a  glow- 
ing picture.  We  did  not  wish  to  distort  the  facts 
or  confuse  the  unusual  with  the  typical.  In  accord- 
ance with  the  policy  of  the  Russian  Division  of  the 
Committee  on  Public  Information  we  merely  wished 


n6  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

to  present  a  picture  of  a  government  actually  trying 
to  serve  its  people ;  and  so  far  as  schools  were  con- 
cerned we  wished  the  Russian  teachers  to  have  at 
hand  a  manual  on  the  development  and  present 
status  of  schools  in  America,  clearly  pointing  out 
our  failures  and  successes  as  we  see  them,  sketch- 
ing our  growth  and  future  objectives,  that  experi- 
mentation in  Russia  might  be  made  in  the  light  of 
our  experience.  It  was  the  hope  that  our  strong 
points  might  be  imitated  or  adapted  and  our  weak- 
nesses avoided.  These  articles  were  first  published 
in  our  own  illustrated  weekly,  called  "A  Friendly 
Word/'  and  were  later  circulated  in  book  form. 

Lectures  Before  Teachers'  Unions. — It  was  not 
long,  however,  before  on  the  streets  began  to  appear 
little  boys  and  girls  in  uniform.  The  boys  wore  blue- 
green  suits  with  brass  buttons,  flaring  trousers,  and 
military  caps.  Schoolgirls  were  distinguished  by 
their  brown  dresses  almost  concealed  by  little  black 
aprons  with  long  sleeves.  Schools  had  opened,  and 
the  military  had  vacated  the  few  places  that  they 
had  occupied. 

The  first  visit  was  paid  to  the  Commercial  School, 
and  in  paying  my  respects  to  the  Director,  I  ac- 
quainted him  with  my  purposes  and  received  a  most 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  1 1 7 

cordial  welcome.  He  suggested  that  I  call  upon  the 
President  of  the  Teachers'  Union  and  gave  me  a 
letter  of  introduction.  It  was  surprising  to  find  the 
most  important  educational  official  of  the  city  in 
a  bare  and  poorly  furnished  office  in  one  of  the 
Primary  Schools.  Although  he  had  only  been  a 
teacher  for  six  years,  his  integrity,  his  fine  charac- 
ter and  executive  ability  had  won  for  him  the  con- 
fidence of  the  teachers  of  the  city.  Here  I  unfolded 
my  plan  of  inviting  the  teachers  to  an  educational  ex- 
hibit, and  volunteered  to  answer  to  the  best  of 
my  ability  any  questions  about  schools  in  the 
United  States.  The  President  of  the  Teachers' 
Union  at  once  called  a  group  for  a  conference. 
The  result  was  an  invitation  to  lecture  before 
the  union  meeting. 

At  once  I  set  to  work  preparing  my  lecture  and 
training  my  interpreter.  The  plan  was  to  give  in 
one  talk  as  comprehensive  a  notion  as  possible  of  the 
American  idea  of  education.  First  came  a  discus- 
sion of  the  development  of  the  single-track  system, 
a  high  school  superimposed  upon  an  elementary 
school,  a  democratic  development  of  the  old  auto- 
cratic parallel  system  found  in  Europe ;  followed  by 
a  description  of  the  characteristics  of  the  elementary, 


1 18  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

high  and  normal  schools,  the  colleges  and  the  uni- 
versities. It  also  sketched  briefly  our  systems  of 
support  and  control  and  ended  by  pointing  out  our 
plans  for  future  development  toward  real  equality 
of  opportunity  for  all,  the  goal  of  a  democratic  sys- 
tem of  schools.  Charts  were  drawn  illustrating  the 
main  points,  translated  into  Russian,,  and  enlarged 
by  Russian  draftsmen.  We  checked  the  work  of  the 
interpreter  by  Americans  who  knew  the  language. 

The  gymnasium  of  the  Commercial  School  was 
packed  on  the  afternoon  of  the  lecture.  The  men  were 
mostly  in  uniform,  wearing  their  insignia  of  gradu- 
ation from  some  higher  school.  There  was  a  fair 
proportion  of  women  and  a  number  of  representa- 
tives of  parents'  committees  of  the  pedagogical 
councils  and  of  the  city  duma. 

The  lecture  commenced  at  four-thirty,  and  by 
speaking  a  short  paragraph  in  English,  followed  by 
a  translation  into  Russian  by  my  interpreter,  we  fin- 
ished by  six  o'clock.  This  was  followed  by  a  light  - 
lunch  of  caviar,  bologna,  cakes,  bread  and  tea;  after 
which  came  the  questions.  The  chairman  of  the  meet- 
ing asked  for  questions.  These  were  written  down, 
and  it  was  not  until  eleven  at  night  that  we  finished 
answering  them.  Every  once  in  a  while  supple- 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  1 19 

mentary  questions  were  asked.  I  have  never  met  an 
audience  in  the  United  States  that  manifested  so 
much  interest. 

The  original  questions  as  translated  by  my  in- 
terpreter were  the  following: 

What  is  the  relative  role  of  state  and  local 
administration  ? 

What  part  do  the  parents  have  in  running  the 
school  ? 

Discuss  the  relative  advantages  of  the  required 
versus  the  elective  system. 

Who  elects  the  school  superintendent? 

How  are  teachers  elected  ? 

How  is  the  Board  of  Education  elected? 

How  can  teachers  express  their  bad  will  toward 
the  principal  or  superintendent? 

How  has  America  been  able  to  gain  its  national 
spirit? 

Describe  the  lessons  in  religion  and  morality  in 
the  American  schools. 

What  foreign  languages  other  than  English  are 
studied? 

Who  releases  teachers? 

Are  teachers  subject  to  military  conscription? 

Have  teachers,  as  government  employees,  the 
right  to  form  unions? 


120  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

(The  word  "  union "  I  later  found  to  corre- 
spond with  our  word  association. ) 

What  are  the  forms  of  teacher  organization? 

What  are  the  rights  of  teachers'  organizations? 

Is  co-education  universal? 

Are  illiterate  soldiers  forced  to  attend  the  pri- 
mary school  ? 

Is  there  a  national  tax  for  schools? 

Can  a  city  administration  have  a  right  to  levy 
taxes  for  school  purposes  ? 

Is  the  program  of  study  the  same  for  boys  and 
girls? 

Do  you  think  it  better  to  divide  the  elementary 
school  into  different  degrees  for  different  ages? 

Are  there  non-governmental  schools? 

How  are  teachers  trained? 

Do  men  and  women  receive  equal  pay  ? 

This  lecture  was  followed  by  two  others  at  in- 
tervals of  three  or  four  days,  one  on  the  Curriculum 
of  the  American  School,  and  another  on  Student 
Life  in  the  American  School.  Each  was  attended 
by  increasing  audiences,  and  questioning  followed 
until  late  in  the  night.  I  did  not  learn  for  several 
days  that  the  Russian  teacher  has  his  dinner  at  three 
in  the  afternoon,  and  thereafter  I  prepared  myself 
for  the  long  ordeal. 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  1 2 1 

Lectures  were  also  delivered  before  the  teachers' 
associations  in  Nicholsk,  Irkutsk  and  Tomsk.  The 
chief  points  of  interest  were  the  control  and  support 
of  schools,  the  curriculum,  the  results  of  the  scien- 
tific study  of  education,  the  training  of  teachers, 
student  self-government  (of  which  many  extrav- 
agant reports  had  reached  their  ears),  and  the 
equality  of  men  and  women. 

They  were  eager  to  know  many  of  the  points 
touched  in  the  following  questions,  and  they  were 
asked  repeatedly  by  new  audiences : 

You  mentioned  state  school  funds  and  land 
grants.  How  could  this  be  applied  to  Siberia? 

How  does  Minnesota,  as  you  mentioned,  receive 
royalties  of  mineral  land? 

How  does  the  American  city  levy  its  school  tax  ? 

Who  is  the  custodian  of  the  funds? 

Upon  what  basis  are  teachers  paid  ? 

How  can  there  be  a  superintendent  of  schools  in 
a  democracy?  We  had  one  under  the  Tsar.  (It 
was  very  difficult  for  the  Siberian  to  understand  the 
way  the  United  States  has  of  delegating  authority 
with  proportionate  responsibility. ) 

How  are  the  rights  of  teachers  safeguarded? 

What  are  the  characteristics  of  a  successful  com- 
pulsory education  law  ? 

9 


122  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

What  proportion  of  school  funds  should  come 
from  the  national  government  ? 

What  is  the  content  of  the  course  of  study  in 
arithmetic,  spelling,  algebra,  history,  moral  train- 
ing, etc.,  etc.? 

How  are  these  subjects  taught? 

What  vocational  training  is  offered?  (Many 
questions  were  asked  about  manual  training,  agri- 
culture, home  economics,  and  commerce. ) 

What  experiments  have  been  made  in  reading, 
writing,  etc.,  .  .  .  and  what  are  their  results? 
(The  results  of  the  measurement  movement  were  of 
much  interest.) 

How  are  teachers  trained  ? 

What  is  the  course  of  study  of  the  Normal 
School? 

Do  you  have  practice  teaching? 

Describe  the  athletics,  and  other  student  activ- 
ities of  an  American  school. 

We  have  heard  much  of  the  success  of  student 
self-government  and  the  honor  system.  Tell  us 
about  them. 

How  do  you  keep  the  boys  and  girls  from  flirting 
in  a  co-educational  school? 

What  is  the  attitude  of  America  toward  different 
nationalities  represented  in  the  population?  Do  you 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  123 

have  separate  schools?  (This  was  usually  asked  by 
a  Korean  or  Buryat  teacher. ) 

How  do  you  teach  patriotism? 

Is  the  educational  purpose  of  the  schools  culture 
or  dollars  ? 

How  have  the  schools  gained  the  unity  of  na- 
tional purpose  manifested  by  the  conduct  of  the 
United  States  in  the  war? 

Many  times  questions  would  be  asked  regarding 
the  national  policy  of  the  United  States,  and  fre- 
quently I  was  asked  to  give  advice  regarding  some 
particular  problem  in  the  Siberian  schools.  The 
reply  was  that  the  lecturer  was  competent  to  answer 
questions  about  schools  in  America,  but  that  his  pro- 
ficiency stopped  there.  The  question  of  the  peculiar 
adaptations  of  educational  policy  to  local  conditions 
is  beyond  the  power  of  anyone  but  a  Russian. 

Conferences  With  Smaller  Groups. — Following 
the  lectures  it  was  common  to  receive  invitations 
from  certain  smaller  groups  that  wished  to  ask  ques- 
tions about  schools  in  America.  There  were  peda- 
gogical councils  from  various  schools  that  wished 
information  about  smaller  administrative  matters 
such  as  the  distribution  of  thej  teaching  load,  size  of 
classes,  marking  system,  etc.  There  were  many 
conferences  of  this  sort. 


i24  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

Possibly  the  most  interesting  of  these  was  the 
conference  with  the  City  Duma  of  Vladivostok,  en- 
gaged in  drawing  up  the  new  charter  of  the  city. 
The  whole  educational  code  was  to  be  revised,  and 
the  general  opinion  was  that  a  committee  of  twenty- 
three  members  should  be  entrusted  with  the  admin- 
istration of  the  schools.  It  was  enlightening  to 
note  the  reaction  of  men  toward  the  notion  of  dele- 
gation of  authority — the  fear  of  granting  a  super- 
intendent of  schools  power  sufficient  to  run  his 
schools  with  efficiency.  (There  is  no  word  for  effi- 
ciency in  the  Russian  language. )  Possibly  if  we  had 
lived  for  centuries  under  a  government  of  despots 
our  whole  thought  would  be  toward  checks  and 
balances. 

Another  interesting  conference  was  held  with  the 
Minister  of  Education  in  Tomsk.  He  held  the  port- 
folio from  the  Ail-Russian  government,  which  had 
continued  him  from  the  All-Siberian  government. 
Admiral  Kolchak  has  since  supplanted  him.  A 
famous  professor  of  geography,  an  international 
authority  on  the  geography  of  the  Altai  mountains, 
for  many  years  Rector  at  the  University  of  Tomsk, 
he  was  the  most  distinguished  figure  in  education  in 
Siberia.  His  offices  in  the  Technological  Institute 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  1 2  5 

at  Tomsk  were  filled  with  clerks,  and  he  was  doing 
his  best  in  drafting  the  new  educational  law  of  the 
land.  He  pointed  out  the  difficulties,  the  lack  of 
school  supplies,  the  lack  of  broad-visioned  admin- 
istrative officers,  the  small  knowledge  of  the  experi- 
ence of  other  countries.  He  welcomed  any  assist- 
ance in  school  supplies  from  America  and  hoped 
that  some  form  of  exchange  of  professors,  teachers 
and  students  might  be  arranged.  The  difficulties  in 
the  wayi  were  a  lack  of  money  and  the  absence  of 
an  administrative  organization  to  carry  out  the  de- 
tails. It  was  so  easy  for  Russians  to  go  to  Germany, 
so  difficult  to  make  the  long  journey  to  America. 

In  January  Minister  Sapojnikoff  issued  a  state- 
ment to  the  press,  calling  the  attention  of  Russian 
students  to  the  opportunities  for  study  in  America 
and  urging  them  to  come  to  our  country.  It  is  to 
be  regretted  that  we  have  no  Cecil  Rhodes  to  make 
their  path  more  easy. 

Numerous  other  conferences  were  held  with  gov- 
ernment officials,  with  local  zemstvos,  with  faculties 
of  normal  schools,  and  with  executive  committees  of 
teachers'  unions  or  associations. 

Conferences   With   the   All-Siberian   Union    of 

Cities  and  Zemstvos. — In  constant  session  in  the  city 
of  Tomsk  is  a  group  of  men  representing  the  larger 


i26  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

cities  and  Zemstvos  of  Siberia,  Inasmuch  as  so 
much  power  has  devolved  upon  the  various  local  gov- 
ernmental units  because  of  the  disorganization  of  the 
central  government,  this  committee,  coordinating 
the  work  of  many  local  governments,  has  a  great 
deal  of  influence  and  power. 

They  had  invited  me  to  come  to  Tomsk  and  con- 
fer with  them,  and  I  was  fortunate  enough  to  have 
several  conferences  with  the  entire  committee.  It 
was  encouraging  to  see  that  education  was  one  of 
their  chief  considerations,  and  that  they  were  using 
every  means  in  their  power  to  promote  it  and  turn 
it  in  the  right  direction.  They  were  particularly 
interested  in  administrative  devices  to  develop 
schools,  and  wished  definite  and  specific  information 
upon  questions  of  school  support,  land  grants,  com- 
pulsory education,  vocational  education,  systems  of 
supervision,  and  the  like.  The  general  opinion  was 
that  Russian  educational  development  was  delayed  by 
a  lack  of  supplies  and  information,  and  they  strongly 
seconded  the  ideas  of  the  Minister  of  Education. 
They  themselves  were  considering  sending  a  com- 
mission of  teachers  to  America.  I  only  fear  that  the 
disorganization  of  the  system  of  taxation  and  the 
depreciation  of  the  rouble  will  prevent  the  accom- 
plishment of  the  plan. 


XL  NEEDS    OF   EDUCATION    IN    SIBERIA 

THE  one  great  thing  that  Siberia  needs  is  edu- 
cation. While  the  pressing  evils  of  the  present  are 
the  settlement  of  civil  war,  the  reorganization  of 
the  transportation  system,  the  development  of  ade- 
quate methods  of  purchase  and  sale,  the  care  of 
health,  and  the  stabilization  of  currency,  fundamental 
to  these  and  a  big  part  of  each  one,  is  the  question  of 
the  training  of  the  youth  of  the  land.  This  is  real- 
ized by  the  people  of  Siberia,  and  they  are  making 
great  strides  toward  the  provision  of  this  very  thing. 

A  careful  reading  of  the  preceding  chapters  will 
show  that  there  are  already  elements  of  a  well 
worked-out  system  of  schools.  A  thoughtful  study 
of  present  tendencies  in  their  educational  practice 
and  thought  will  show  that  they  desire  above  all  else 
schools  that  will  turn  out  the  kinds  of  boys  and  girls 
that  democracy  needs.  But  they  need  help,  and 
America  is  in  the  most  favorable  position  to  render 
this  assistance. 

The  place  that  America  has  taken  in  the  great 
war  has  won  the  admiration  of  the  Russian  people. 

127 


128  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

The  moderation  and  unselfishness  of  our  foreign 
policy  has  gained  their  respect.  The  name  "  Ameri- 
kanski "  (American)  is  well  received  among  all 
groups  of  people,  except  the  monarchists,  who 
expected  intervention  to  restore  the  Tsar,  and  the 
Bolsheviki,  who  were  refused  recognition.  Germany 
is  cordially  hated.  The  war  with  Japan  is  not  for- 
gotten. The  Russians  turn  to  our  country  for  help. 

Russia  needs  no  foreign  system  of  schools.  A 
thousand  American  schoolmasters  sent  to  Siberia 
would  do  little  good.  They  have  their  own  ideas. 
They  know  their  own  customs,  habits,  aims  and  ambi- 
tions. Our  service  will  be  much  more  simple.  It 
will  merely  mean  small  assistance  to  supply  the 
fundamental  needs  of  the  country. 

These  needs  are  the  following: 

i.  Supplies. — Russia  has  long  been  dependent 
upon  other  nations  for  her  school  supplies.  Before 
the  war,  in  each  city  of  Siberia  there  was  a  German 
Bank  and  German  firms  that  sold  books,  charts,  pen- 
cils, ink,  paper  and  chalk.  They  adapted  themselves 
to  Russian  needs.  They  conformed  to  the  Russian 
system  of  credit.  If  a  university  professor  wished 
to  purchase  an  American  book,  he  bought  it  through 
this  German  house.  Since  the  war,  this  trade  has 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  129 

stopped.  The  University  at  Irkutsk  hasn't  a  single 
book  in  its  library.  There  are  professors  at  Tomsk 
who  have  had  no  new  books  in  two  years.  I  saw  a 
school  in  Taiga  that  was  without  supplies,  and  reports 
from  the  rural  sections  indicate  that  this  is  not 
uncommon.  American  educational  works  are  not 
known  in  Siberia.  The  publications  of  our  universi- 
ties have  never  been  seen.  Our  magazines  and  jour- 
nals do  not  reach  them.  Here  is  a  fundamental 
educational  need  that  never  has  been  supplied. 

We  may  help  the  people  of  Siberia  in  this  regard 
by  sending  supplies.  If  the  American  publishing 
houses  would  combine,  and  send  a  representative  who 
would  carry  many  books  with  him,  and  a  complete 
line  of  catalogues,  it  would  do  much  good.  The 
whole  commercial  field  is  untouched,  and  the  Rus- 
sians wish  us  to  develop  it. 

2.  Information. — Great  as  has  been  the  poverty 
in  school  supplies,  the  need  for  information  is  even 
greater.  The  Russian  knows  almost  nothing  about 
the  ways  in  which  a  government  may  serve  its  people. 
He  thinks  of  it  as  an  instrument  which  takes  money 
for  its  coffers,  and  boys  for  its  armies,  and  then  gives 
nothing  in  return.  His  chief  concern  is  to  protect 
himself.  He  longs  for  checks  and  balances. 


i3o  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

This  is  not  only  the  case  with  the  great  majority 
of  the  people;  those  in  authority  are  but  little  better 
informed.  The  people  who  are  running  the  schools 
to-day  were  village  schoolmasters  yesterday,  whose 
most  intimate  contact  with  government  was  to  pay 
its  taxes,  watch  out  for  its  spies  and  inspectors,  and 
take  great  care  not  to  offend  anyone.  The  great 
changes  that  are  coming  in  Russian  education  are 
likely  to  come  without  a  knowledge  of  the  experi- 
ences of  other  people  in  meeting  similar  problems, 
unless  we  take  steps  to  inform  them. 

There  is  also  great  need  for  specific  educational 
information  and  advice.  The  curriculum  of  the  Rus- 
sian schools  needs  great  reorganization.  The  Second- 
ary School  for  Boys,  the  Gymnasium,  teaches  three 
dead  languages — Latin,  Greek  and  Church  Sla- 
vonic— with  very  little  time  spent  in  preparation 
for  the  life  of  to-day.  The  work  of  the  Primary 
School  is  very  meagre.  Children  are  being  turned 
out  into  a  world  teeming  with  conflicting  political 
philosophies  without  so  much  as  an  hour's  training 
in  the  duties  of  citizenship.  Boys  and  girls  are 
going  to  the  farm  and  home,  without  a  single  bit  of 
training  in  modern  agriculture  or  homemaking.  In 
a  country  where  seven  out  of  ten  children  die  before 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  13 1 

five  years  of  age,  where  sanitation  is  absolutely 
unknown,  there  is  not  a  word  of  health  or  hygiene 
taught  in  the  public  schools.  There  is  very  little 
emphasis  on  teaching  children  how  to  have  fun,  how 
to  play,  how  to  organize  athletic  contests.  They  do 
not  read  pleasant  stories.  There  is  no  training 
for  the  leisure  period,  in  a  nation  noted  for  its 
"  wine,  women  and  song."  It  is  at  least  a  question 
if  much  of  the  immorality  prevalent  in  Siberian 
cities  may  not  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  people  know 
of  nothing  better  to  do. 

The  change  from  an  autocratic  system  of  educa- 
tion, designed  to  turn  out  a  few  leaders  and  a  great 
mass  of  followers  (the  present  system)  to  a  demo- 
cratic system,  will  take  much  effort  on  the  part  of 
the  progressive  people.  The  teachers  of  the  second- 
ary schools,  with  few  exceptions,  constitute  a  reac- 
tionary group.  They  wish  the  old  order  to  persist. 
They  are  satisfied  with  the  past.  The  elementary 
school  teachers  are  looking  forward  to  the  future. 

We  may  help  these  people  by  supplying  infor- 
mation. That  is  their  greatest  need.  This  may  be 
done  in  the  following  ways : 

A.  Propaganda  Work. — The  Committee  on  Pub- 
lic Information  has  been  maintaining  a  very  efficient 


i32  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

group  of  workers  who  have  been  setting  up  as  their 
main  task  the  giving  of  ideas  to  the  people  of 
Siberia.  In  a  weekly  illustrated  journal,  called  The 
Friendly  Word,  they  have  been  dealing  with  the  ways 
in  which  the  United  States  is  serving  its  people,  how 
it  runs  its  schools,  how  it  helps  the  farmer,  how  it 
stimulates  industry,  etc.  This  little  paper  is  being 
circulated  all  over  Siberia,  being  read  by  thousands, 
and  read  to  countless  thousands  more.  Through  the 
Film  Division  of  the  same  committee,  all  sorts  of 
American  moving  picture  films  are  being  shown 
throughout  Siberia.  Russian  titles  are  made  and 
inserted  in  the  laboratory  in  Vladivostok,  and  where 
the  villages  have  no  projection  machines  of  their  own, 
travelling  outfits  are  being  supplied. 

B.  Sending  Printed  Material. — We  should  send 
to  Siberia  the  best  printed  material  that  we  have. 
Each  Zemstvo  and  each  city  government  should  have 
at  hand  the  bulletins  of  our  Bureau  of  Education, 
the  publications  of  our  State  Departments  of  Educa- 
tion and  the  best  textbooks  on  the  organization  and 
administration  of  education  that  we  possess.  The 
publications  of  all  our  universities  should  be  col- 
lected and  presented  to  the  Universities  of  Irkutsk 
and  Tomsk  as  a  gift  from  the  American  people.  We 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  133 

should  also,  in  some  form  or  other,  have  a  constant 
series  of  pamphlets  especially  written  for  the  Rus- 
sian teachers.  There  should  be  books  on  subjects 
like  these :  the  teaching  of  primary  reading,  agricul- 
ture, home  economics,  industrial  work,  health  and 
other  subjects  of  which  the  Siberian  people  know 
practically  nothing. 

C.  Maintaining  Information  Bureaus. — In  two 
or  three  of  the  larger  cities,  say  Vladivostok  and 
Tomsk,  and  possibly  later  in  Moscow,  we  should 
establish  American  Educational   Information  Bu- 
reaus.    These  bureaus  should  be  in  the  charge  of 
experts  from  America,  who  know  our  schools,  their 
development  and  present  status.     They  should  be 
equipped  with  books,  charts,  pictures,  slides,  and 
moving  picture  films.     Those  in  charge  should  be 
free  to  travel,  and  be  willing  at  any  time  to  confer 
with  educational  officials  and  give  lectures.     These 
men,  if  they  were  willing  to  confine  their  remarks  to 
the  good  and  bad  points  of  American  educational 
experience,  and  refrain  from  giving  good  advice, 
would  be  welcome,  and  would  have  opportunity  of 
rendering  large  service. 

D.  Bringing  Russsians  to  America. — We  should 
see  that  Russian  students,  teachers  and  professors 


i34  SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA 

have  opportunity  to  visit  the  United  States,  to  study 
here,  and  gain  at  first  hand  the  results  of  our  experi- 
ence. Germany  was  Russia's  former  schoolmaster. 
The  Russian  student  studied  on  the  Rhine.  Auto- 
cratic ideals  were  instilled  and  fostered  through  con- 
tact with  a  country  that  knew  so  little  of  democracy 
as  foolishly  not  to  fear  it.  There  were  many  reasons 
for  this,  Germany  was  a  great  advertiser,  and 
advertised  not  only  her  own  strong  points,  but  the 
weak  points  of  her  rivals.  Germany  was  close  at 
hand.  German  language  was  taught  in  Russian 
schools.  German  geography  occupied  pages  in  the 
textbooks  to  the  exclusion  of  other  countries.  It 
was  natural  for  the  Russian  to  go  to  a  country 
which  was  close  at  hand,  where  living  was  cheap, 
whose  geography  and  language  were  known,  in  pref- 
erence to  a  remote  country,  with  a  strange  language, 
populated  by  Red  Indians. 

The  people  of  Siberia  are  gaining  a  different 
idea  of  America.  A  democracy  that  could  turn  the 
tide  in  a  great  war  must  be  worthy  of  respect.  The 
English  language  is  being  introduced  into  the  schools. 
But  the  distance  between  Siberia  and  America  is  still 
great,  and  the  cost  of  living  and  travel  is  high.  We 
must  for  a  time  at  least  bring  Russian  students  and 


SCHOOLS  IN  SIBERIA  135 

teachers  to  America,  and  this  should  be  done  at  our 
expense.  A  sum  of  $40,000  a  year  for  ten  years 
would  bring  five  groups  of  twenty  teachers  and 
students  to  America  for  periods  of  two  years  each. 
Each  of  these  young  men  or  women  could  spend  two 
years,  study  at  our  best  universities  or  normal 
schools,  visit  all  types  of  educational  institutions, 
have  a  chance  to  travel  and  live  well,  and  before 
returning  translate  under  the  direction  of  the  author, 
one  of  our  best  books.  These  people  returning  to 
Siberia  would  immediately  become  centers  of 
influence.  They  would  assume  positions  of  impor- 
tance. They  would  have  seen  the  strong  and  weak 
points  oi  American  democracy.  They  would  be 
in  a  splendid  position  to  advise  what  to  imitate  and 
what  to  avoid. 

America  has  an  opportunity  to  do  more  for  Rus- 
sia than  France  once  did  for  us.  We  can  save  her 
fifty  years  in  her  development.  We  should  not  miss 
this  chance. 


UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRAEY, 
BERKELEY 


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